UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


THE  GIFT  OF 

MAY  TREAT  MORRISON 

IN  MEMORY  OF 

ALEXANDER  F  MORRISON 


Everybody's 
Guide  to  Music 

With 

Illustrated  Chapters  on  Singing  and 

Cultivation  of  the  Voice ;  Full  and 

Explicit  Helps  to  the  Piano  and 

Organ;  Complete  Dictionary 

of  Musical  Terms 


JOSIAII    BOOTH 


NEW  YORK 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS  PUBLISnERS 


Coi>yright,  1893,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


All  n'yi<>  rttervtd. 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 


This  "  Guide  to  Music  "  will,  it  is  believed,  serve  to  intro- 
duce "everybody"  to  the  tlieoi'y  if  not  tlie  practice  of  tlie 
Musical  Art.  Tlie  Publishers  issue  the  book  at  a  price  which 
■will,  it  is  hoped,  lead  to  the  cultivation  of  musical  talent,  which 
only  needs  a  trustworthy  and  accessible  guide  to  call  it  forth 
and  to  develop  it ;  while  to  those  who  may  have  neither  ear 
nor  voice  the  book  will  present  the  fhecyry  of  Music  in  an  in- 
telligible form. 

The  American  edition  has  had  the  careful  supervision  of  Mr. 
John  Hyatt  Brewer,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


437416 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/everybodysguidetOObootiala 


CONTENTS 


CUAF.  PAGE 

I.  nature's  forms  in  musical  instruments 1 

II.    MUSICAL   SOUNDS   IN   THE    NATURAL    WORLD 9 

III.  THE    PIANOFORTE   AND    MUSICAL    NOTATION 15 

IV.  MEASURE    IN   MUSIC 29 

V.    LIGHT   AND   SHADE    IN   MUSIC 36 

TI.    ORNAMENTATION    IN   MUSIC 45 

VII.    ON  SINGING 60 

VIII.    THE    ORGAN 62 

IX.    THE   GROWTH   OF   MUSIC 72 

COMPOSERS   OF   MUSIC 113 

X.    MUSICAL   TERMS 117 

THE    LONDON    ALBERT   HALL   ORGAN 163 

THE   CTIICAGO   AUDITORIUM  ORGAN 166 

THE   CINCINNATI   MUSIC   HALL    ORGAN 170 

INDEX 173 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


chapter  i 
nature's  forms  in  musical  instruments 

The  foundation  of  every  Art  is  laid  in  Nature.  From  the 
cave  has  grown  the  cathedral,  in  arcliitectural  art.  From  the 
reflected  scene  or  image  upon  the  water's  surface  has  grown 
the  oil-painting,  water-color  drawing,  or  photograph,  in  picto- 
rial art.  From  the  chance  resemblance  to  some  living  form  in 
one  of  Nature's  tempest-hewn  rocks  has  grown  the  statue,  in 
sculptural  art.  And  from  the  humming  of  the. bee,  the  singing 
of  the  birds,  or  the  whistling  of  the  wind  over  broken  hollow 
reeds,  has  grown  the  chorale,  the  sonata,  and  the  symphony,  in 
the  musical  art. 

The  painter  and  the  sculptor  still  are  students  in  the  school  of 
Nature.  Daily  she  supplies  them  with  fresh  scenes  of  beauty, 
new  forms  of  loveliness,  which  earnestly  they  strive  to  copy. 
It  is  not  theirs  to  invent,  since  Nature's  forms  are  perfect,  and 
cannot  be  excelled  in  marble  or  on  canvas.  In  decorative  art, 
however,  and  still  more  conspicuously  in  architectural  art,  we 
see  the  putting  forth  of  man's  originality  of  thought  and  plan. 
The  cathedral,  with  its  stately  pillars,  domes,  and  arches,  its 
windows,  rich  in  color,  form,  and  tracery,  gives  to  the  eye  a 
pleasure  such  as  we  can  find  in  no  examples  which  the  natural 
world  affords. 

But  in  the  art  of  music  the  inventive  genius  of  the  human 
mind  is  still  more  manifest.  On  every  hand,  in  the  composi- 
tions of  the  many  masters  of  the  art,  and  in  the  many  musical 
instruments  of  man's  design  and  construction,  we  see  monu- 
ments to  his  fertility  of  brain.  Indeed,  no  work  in  composition 
1 


2     ".  •  ,' ' '.  *.   .'  •   '*  ,\JlilD^  TO  MUSIC. 

i?  n.o\y  i:eea,rded.(^?  beiqg  pf  any  value  whatever,  unless  it  have 
Wpaaiit'.tiiu  stamp  X)f  i^eflyas  or  originality.  In  tliis  art  man 
"mtiSt'evbt'UeVionstrUttilig'gDmcthing  new,  though  ever  he  must 
build  upon  the  firm  foundation  laid  in  Nature's  laws. 

Nature  has  given  to  man  sound,  and,  aided  by  examples  of 
its  use  which  she  herself  affords,  tlie  musician  has  devised  the 
charms  of  melody,  and  built  up  the  firm,  wise  laws  of  harmony. 
Nature  has  also  thrown  out  hints  in  forms  of  living  things  and 
creatures,  and  from  these  have  been  evolved  the  many  instru- 
ments through  which  the  music  of  the  art 
is  now  interpreted. 

Thus,  broken  reeds  upon  the  river  bank, 

or  hollow  stalks  of  withered  plants,  were 

Nature's  first  suggestion  of  the  flute  and 

organ.     The  earliest  attempt  to  form  a 

musical   instrument   from   these   simple 

reeds  no  doubt  produced  the  Pandean 

pipes  (Fig.  1),  an  instrument  which  still 

Fig.  1.  exists,  though  fallen  into  somewhat  low 

society. 

In  the  flute  (Fig.  3)  we  have  an  instrument  producing  many 

sounds  from  one  tube,  the  simple  device  of  piercing  it  with 

holes  to  be  stopped  or  unstopped  b}'  the  fingers  enabling  the 


Fig.  2. 


player  to  make  it  a  short  pipe  giving  a  high  sound,  or  a  long 
pipe  giving  a  low  sound,  at  his  will.  This  is  one  of  the  early 
touches  of  man's  inventive  genius. 

In  the  organ  we  have  many  pipes  of  varying  length,  grouped 
in  families  of  differing  tone,  and  all  brought  under  the  control 
of  the  player  through  the  now  very  familiar  keyboard  for  the 
fingers,  another  most  useful  invention. 

The  horns  of  cattle,  blown  into  through  a  hole  pierced  in 
the  thin  end,  gave,  no  doubt,  the  earliest  suggestion  of  the 


NATURE  8  FORMS  IN  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  3 

trumpet,  and  in  this  instrument,  the  cornet  (Fig.  3),  and  the 
trombone  (Fig.  4),  we  have  improved  copies  in  brass  of  the 
horn  of  ancient  days. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


An  increased  knowledge  of  the  formation  of  the  human 
organ  of  sound  led  to  the  mechanical  imitation  of  its  different 
parts,  which  imitation  has  been  followed  with  the  most  inter- 
esting results  in  many  musical  instruments.  Of  first  impor- 
tance in  the  vocal  organ  are  the  lungs.  These  supply  the 
breath  by  which  the  sound  is  formed.  From  them  it  passes 
through  the  windpipe  to  the  larynx,  wherein  lie  the  vocal 
chords,  being  rendered  regular  and  steady  in  its  supply  by  the 
walls  of  the  chest.  So,  in  the  bellows  of  the  organ  (Fig.  5) 
generally  two  in  number,  we  have  the  lungs  of  the  instru- 
ment. From  these  wind  passes  into  a  large  expanding  chest, 
which  steadies  and  regulates  the  supply  to  the  pipes  above. 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Other  instruments  imitate  that  more  delicate  part  of  the 
voice  machine,  the  vocal  chords  (Fig.  6)  themselves.    These 


A,  Feeders. 


Fig.  6. 
B,  Reservoir. 


C,  Weights. 


are  two  sensitive  strips  of  fleshy  membrane  stretching  across 
the  larynx,  the  edges  of  which  flutter  or  vibrate  rapidly  as 
breath  passes  between  them.  The  boy  imitates  their  action, 
unknowingly  perhaps,  when  he  blows  upon  a  leaf  or  blade  of 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


grass,  held  liL-^htly  between  his  thumbs  (Fig.  7) — the  rapid  flut- 
tering of  which  gives  forth  a  loud  slirill  sound;  and  al.so  when 
he  makes  a  whistle  by  a  slit  cut  in  the  side  of  any  reed  or  hol- 
low stalk  of  corn. 


nature's  forms  in  musical  instruments.  5 

In  the  clarinet  (Fig.  8)  we  have  a  keyed  tube  sometliing  like 
the  flute,  but  embodying  and  perfecting  within  the  mouthpiece 
tlie  foregoing  idea.  In  this  is  fixed  a  small  thin  piece  of  wood 
called  a  reed,  which  vibrates  rapidly  as  wind  is  blown  through 


Fig.  8. 


the  narrow  passage  formed  between  it  and  the  head  of  the  in- 
strument. 

The  oboe  (Fig.  9)  is  an  instrument  smaller  than  the  clarinet, 
though  similar  in  shape,  excepting  in  the  formation  of  the 


Fig.  9. 


mouthpiece,  in  which  we  have  a  double  reed,  introduced  prob- 
ably in  imitation  of  the  tiro  vocal  chords  of  the  human  voice. 
The  bassoon  (Fig.  10)  is  larger  than  the  clarinet,  and  some- 


Fig,  la 


what  different  in  shape.    Like  the  oboe,  it  has  a  double  reed, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  bass  of  that  class  of  instrument. 


6 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


In  the  Bo-called  "  reeds  "  of  the  organ  (Fig.  11)  tlic  same  idea 
again  appears.  To  imitate  the  tone  of  the  trumi)et,the  oboe, 
the  clarinet,  or  horn,  the  wind  is  made  to  pass  over  a  piece  of 
thin  brass,  which  vibrates  just  as  in  the  instruments  described. 


I 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


The  tone  of  the  American  organ  and  tlie  harmonium  is  pro- 
duced entirely  by  such  metal  reeds  (Fig.  12),  unaided  by  pipes. 
These  are  placed  in  rows,  from  large  to  small,  to  produce  the 
notes  of  varying  pitch. 

We  come  now  to  consider  another  most  important  manner  of 
imitation  in  musical  instruments  of  the  vocal  organ. 

The  quality  and  power  of  tone  of  tlie  human  voice  docs  not 
depend  alone  upon  the  vibration  of  the  vocal  chords.  In  sym- 
pathy with  these  there  must  be  vibration  in  the  chest  jind 
head,  which  act  as  resonators,  increasing  the  intensity  and 
improving  the  quality  of  the  sounds  produced.  AVe  may  dis- 
tinctly feel  vibration  in  the  chest  if  we  place  our  fingers  upon 
it  when  singing  a  low  note.  Here  we  have  Nature's  suggestion 
of  that  which  in  the  piano  and  other  instruments  we  call  the 


NATURE  8  FORMS  IN  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  7 

"sound-board."  This  piece  of  thin,  well-dried  wood  found 
beneath  the  wires  in  tlie  grand,  or  behind  them  in  the  upright, 
piano,  throbs  in  sympathy  with  every  tone  of  tlie  instrument, 
and,  throwing  the  air  into  motion  over  a  much  larger  surface 
than  the  wires  alone  would  do,  adds  greatly  both  to  the  power 
and  quality  of  the  tone. 

One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  stringed  instruments  was  proba- 
bly a  shell  with  a  few  strands  of  some  kind  strung  across  it. 
In  the  accompanying  drawing  (Fig.  13)  we  see  a  development 
of  this  idea.  A  tortoise  shell  is  the  resonator;  a  pair  of  horns 
give  length  to  the  three  strings,  which  are  strung  from  the 
shell  to  the  cross  piece  at  the  tips  of  the  horns.  Following 
this  ancient  instrument  through  its  varied  forms  of  develop- 
ment in  one  direction  we  come  to  the  lyre,  with  a  framework 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


of  carved  wood,  as  here  shown  (Fig.  14),  the  design  of  which 
is  clearly  suggested  by  the  natural  forms  of  horn  and  shell  in 
the  earlier  instrument.  From  these  grew  the  harp,  the  dulci- 
mer, and  latterly  the  piano. 


8 


OniI>B  TO  MUSIC, 


Following  it  in  another  direction  we  come  to  stringed  in- 
struments of  the  fiddle  kind,  which,  having  passed  through  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  have  settled  down  to  one  which,  for  the 
last  two  hundred  years,  has  been  regarded  as  perfect. 


Fig.  15. 

o,  Position  of  larynx  where  sound 

is  generated. 


Fig.  10. 
a,  Position  of  bridge,  and  place 
where  tone  is  produced. 


In  this  it  is  interesting  to  notice  a  close  imitation  of  the  lines 
of  the  human  liead,  neck,  and  chest,  which  will  appear  from 
the  following  diagrams  : 

In  Fig.  15  we  have  an  outline  of  those  parts  which  constitute 
the  vocal  organ;  in  Fig.  16  we  have  the  outline  of  the  violin. 
Comparing  the  two,  we  see  wherein  the  instrument  is  moulded, 
whether  by  accident  or  design  cannot  be  said,  upon  Nature's 
model. 

One  important  point  of  imitation  seen  in  the  above  is  the 
narrowing  of  the  instrument  at  that  part  which  corresponds  to 
the  human  throat,  and  making  this,  as  it  is  in  the  voice,  the 
place  where  tone  is  generated.  Looked  at  from  this  standpoint 
of  close  resemblance  to  the  human  form,  it  would  seem  more 
natural  to  speak  of  this  part  as  the  neck  of  the  instrument, 


MUSICAL  SOUNDS  IN  THE  NATURAL  WORLD.  9 

rather  than  to  give  that  name  to  the  narrow  piece  grasped  by 
the  left  hand  of  the  performer,  which  obviously  has  been  pro- 
vided to  give  sufficient  length  of  string  to  produce  tones  of  the 
requisite  pitch,  the  head-piece  being  designed  to  hold  the  pegs 
by  which  the  strings  are  tuned.  Still  more  inappropriate  does 
it  seem  to  speak  of  any  part  of  this  voice-like  instrument  as  the 
"  belly,"  since,  in  the  vocal  organ,  of  which  it  is  so  striking  a 
copy,  tone  cannot  be  produced  in  any  part  below  the  chest. 
Whatever  may  be  urged,  however,  against  or  in  favor  of  this 
view,  we  know  that  in  the  violin  we  have  an  instrument  pos- 
sessing many  of  the  wonderful  qualities  of  the  human  voice, 
which  in  form  and  plan,  and,  consequently  it  may  be,  in  effect, 
it  so  remarkably  resembles. 

Here  we  will  leave  Nature's  suggestions  in  musical  instru- 
ments, and  proceed,  in  the  next  chapter,  to  see  what  aid  she 
will  render  us  in  seekins  to  understand  music  itself. 


CHAPTER  II 
MUSICAL  SOUNDS  IN  THE  NATURAL  WORLD 

As  Nature  was  man's  earliest  instructor  in  music,  it  is  well 
for  every  lover  and  student  of  the  art  to  take  lessons  at  the  be- 
ginning in  this  same  preparatory  school.  Every  child,  when 
commencing  to  learn  to  play  upon  any  musical  instrument, 
should  at  the  same  time  be  taught  something  concerning  the 
nature  of  the  musical  sounds  which  he  produces.  Even  more 
important  is  it  for  a  child  to  learn  at  the  very  beginning  to  dis- 
tinguish between  agreement  and  disagreement  m  such  musi- 
cal sounds.  Were  this  always  done  in  early  life,  we  should  not 
find  so  many  people  grow  up  absolutely  devoid  of  musical  ear. 

Tlie  sweetest  sounds  which  we  find  in  the  natural  world  are 
those  of  the  human  voice,  and  of  the  songsters  of  the  feathered 
tribe.  But  it  requires  much  study  to  understand  the  organism 
of  the  throat  of  man  and  bird,  and  from  these  we  cannot  easily 
draw  illustrations.  We  must  at  first  content  ourselves  with 
humbler  creatures  as  object  lessons,  and  although  the  sounds 


10  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

we  shall  deal  with  may  not  be  so  musical,  the  raamier  in  which 
they  are  produced  will  be  more  readily  understood. 

Let  us  learn,  first  of  all,  what  we  can  from  the  bee  and  the 
butterfly.  The  flight  of  the  former  is  accorapained  by  a  hum- 
ming sound  of  a  somewhat  musical  character;  the  flight  of  the 
latter  gives  forth  no  sound  at  all. 

The  reason  for  this  is  so  simple  as  scarcely  to  need  explana- 
tion, yet  here  we  learn  much  concerning  the  production  of  mu- 
sical sounds. 

The  bee  has,  comparatively  speaking,  a  large,  heavy  body 
and  small  wings.  The  butterfly  has  a  small,  light  body  and 
large  wings.  To  lift  and  sustain  the  heavy  body  in  the  air  tlie 
bee  must  move  its  wings  to  and  fro  with  great  rapidity;  to 
sustain  its  light  body  the  butterfly  needs  only  to  move  its 
wings  very  slowly.  The  rapid  motion  of  the  bee's  wings  pro- 
duces the  humming  sound  we  have  spoken  of;  the  slow  move- 
ment of  the  butterfly's  wings  produces  no  sound  at  all.  This 
rapid  movement  of  wing  w-e  find  in  many  insects  besides  the 
bee,  and  though  it  is  not  characterislic  of  birds  generally,  one 
example  of  it  is  found  in  the  humming-bird,  which,  like  the 
bee,  has  a  body  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  wings 
that  have  to  support  it,  hence  the  rapid  motion  of  its  wings  in 
flight,  and  the  accompanying  hum. 

Here  we  learn  that  a  musical  sound  is  produced  by  anything 
which  beats  upon  the  air  with  a  rapid  and  regular  movement. 
If  the  beats  be  not  regular,  the  sound  varies  in  what  is  called 
its  "pitch."  That  is,  should  the  beats  be  quickened,  the  sound 
rises,  becomes  a  higher  sound,  not  necessarily  a  louder  sound. 
Should  the  beats  be  slackened  in  their  pace,  the  sound  falls,  be- 
comes a  lower  sound. 

It  is  quite  easy,  even  with  closed  eyes,  to  tell  when  the  bee  is 
rising  in  the  air  and  when  falling,  by  the  changes  in  the  pitch 
of  the  humming  sound  it  produces.  When  it  rises  its  wings 
beat  the  air  more  quickly,  and  the  sound  becomes  higher ; 
when  it  falls  its  wings  move  more  slowly,  and  the  sound  be- 
comes perceptibly  lower.  Ordinarily  tlie  beat  of  the  bee's  wing 
is  as  rapid  as  400  in  a  second — when  falling  in  the  air,  or  when 
wearied  by  long  flight,  the  rate  of  movement  is  reduced  to 
about  300  in  a  secoud. 

How  the  sound  is  conveyed  from  the  place  where  the  beats 


MUSICAL  SOUNDS  IN  THE  NATURAL  WORLD.  11 

lake  place  to  the  ear,  through  which  organ  they  affect  us  so 
pleasantly  or  unpleasantly,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  following 
homely  illustrations  will  serve  to  show. 

If  a  stone  be  cast  into  a  pond,  the  surface  of  which  is  still,  a 
number  of  ripples  will  be  seen  to  rise  in  circular  form  around 
the  spot  where  the  slone  fell. 

Let  the  sudden  thrusting  aside  of  the  water  by  the  stone  rep- 
resent the  sudden  thrusting  aside  of  the  air  by  a  stroke  of  the 
bee's  wing.  Though  invisible,  a  movement  takes  place  in  the 
air  somewhat  similar  to  that  we  see  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Each  particle  of  air  receives  a  push,  or  shock,  and  hands 
it  on  in  turn  to  the  next,  and  the  next,  until,  if  we  are  not  too 
distant  (for  the  waves  grow  feebler  in  transmission),  a  beat  falls 
upon  our  ear,  and  we  become  sensible  of  sound. 

In  the  air  this  movement  takes  place  all  around  the  spot 
where  it  is  first  formed,  and  not  only  upon  one  plane,  as  seen 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  Thus,  from  the  bee's  wings,  air 
waves  are  issuing  in  all  directions,  and  we  hear  the  sound  above, 
below,  or  on  either  hand. 

We  shall  have  observed  that  the  instant  the  bee  settles  and 
folds  its  wings  the  humming  sound  ceases,  while  upon  the 
water's  surface  ripples  continue  to  follow  each  other  for  some 
time  after  the  stone  has  fallen.  The  air  does  not  multiply 
waves  in  this  way;  one  beat  of  the  bee's  wing  produces  one 
beat  only  upon  our  ear,  and  fifty,  fifty;  not  one  wave  will  be 
added,  nor  one  lost. 

An  echo  will  reveal  this  fact  very  clearly.  A  sound  is  di- 
rected towards  some  distant  hill,  from  which  we  lie.ar  it  thrown 
back  to  us  again,  reduced,  of  course,  in  power  of  tone.  The 
beats  communicated  to  tlie  air  by  the  instrument  or  voice  which 
gave  forth  the  sound  are  transmitted,  in  the  manner  described, 
to  the  hill-side,  from  which  they  rebound,  and,  returning,  fall 
again  upon  our  ear,  in  number  and  in  pace  exactly  as  they  went, 
otherwise  we  should  not  hear  again  the  same  sound. 

The  phonograph  may  be  regarded  as  an  instrument  for  pro- 
ducing such  echoes  of  sound  l)y  meclianical  means.  The  air 
waves  sent  forth  by  the  voice  or  musical  instrument  fall  upon 
the  drum  of  the  phonograph,  stirring  it  into  movements  like 
those  which  stir  our  car,  giving  us  the  sensation  of  sound. 
These  movements  are  imprinted  by  a  small  needle  upon  a  re- 


12  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

volving  cylinder  of  wax,  and  thus  the  sound  is  received.  To 
give  it  forth  again,  the  revolving  cylinder  must  be  placed  in 
contact  with  the  drum  as  before,  when  all  the  movements  caused 
by  the  sound  in  the  first  instance  can  be  repeated,  the  vibrations 
of  the  drum  sending  forth  air  waves  which  fall  upon  our  ears 
as  an  echo  or  reflection  of  the  sound. 

The  rate  of  vibrations  in  musical  sound  may,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  be  said  to  vary  from  twenty  beats  in  a  second,  pro- 
ducing a  very  low  sound,  to  four  thousand  beats  in  a  second, 
producing  a  very  high  sound.  Neither  this  rapid  vibration  nor 
the  slow  one  produce  sounds  which  are  very  agreeable  from  a 
musical  point  of  view,  the  pleasantest  effects  are  obtained  from 
those  which  come  between  these  extremes,  lliough  all  are  used 
in  music. 

The  means  employed  to  produce  vibration  differ  in  different 
musical  instruments.  As  in  Nature  the  majority  of  sounds  are 
formed  by  wind,  so  also  the  larger  number  of  musical  instru- 
ments are  blown  by  wind.  In  the  voice,  whether  of  man,  beast, 
or  bird,  we  find  sound  in  all  cases  to  be  caused  by  breath  from 
the  lungs,  which,  being  directed  upon  the  vocal  chords,  pro- 
duces the  rapid  fluttering  to  and  fro  already  spoken  of.  In  the 
clarinet  wind  is  directed  upon  the  reed,  which,  in  similar  man- 
ner, is  caused  to  vibrate.  In  organ  pipes  wind  is  directed  in 
such  a  way  at  the  mouthpiece  as  to  cause  a  fluttering  of  the  air 
column  within  the  pipe.  And,  in  the  case  of  performers  upon 
the  cornet  and  similar  brass  instruments,  the  breath  is  so  di- 
rected as  to  cause  a  rapid  fluttering  of  the  player's  lips,  which 
produces  a  fluttering  of  air  within  the  instrument  at  a  corre- 
sponding rate  of  movement.  And  thus  in  all,  vibration  is  set 
up,  varying  in  rapidity  as  the  sound  varies  in  pitch,  and  differ- 
ing in  tone  quality  as  the  instruments  differ  in  formation. 

Should  the  action  of  air  in  this  varied  manner,  and  the  great 
rapidity  of  vibration  spoken  of,  be  to  any  one  difficult  to  un- 
derstand, a  simple  experiment  or  illustration  will  help  to  make 
clear  some  of  these  movements. 

Let  a  piece  of  silk  ribbon  of  ordinary  fineness  of  rib  be  held 
tightly  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of  one  hand,  while  with 
the  other  it  is  drawn  rapidly  away.  By  these  common  means 
we  have  produced  a  sound  of  very  high  pitch.  This  sound  is 
caused  by  the  rapid  movement  of  the  finger  and  thumb  over 


MUSICAL  SOUNDS  IN  THE  NATURAL  WORLD.  13 

the  threads,  or  ribs  of  the  silk;  for  although  these  to-and-fro 
movements  are  so  slight,  the  sound  proves  that  they  take  place. 
By  drawing  a  yard  of  such  material  smartly  from  end  to  end, 
we  shall  probably  have  caused  movements  of  the  finger  and 
tlmmb  at  even  the  high  rate  of  four  thousand  in  a  second. 
Having  accomplished  this  with  our  own  hand,  all  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  comprehending  this  rapid  movement  should 
vanish. 

This  homely  experiment  well  illustrates  the  manner  in  which 
vibration  takes  place  upon  the  lips  of  the  player  upon  brass 
instruments. 

The  finger  and  thumb  tightly  pressed  together  represent  the 
lips  of  the  player,  which  are  similarly  pressed  tightly  together. 

The  silk  with  its  thousands  of  threads  represents  the  air  with 
its  thousands  of  separate  particles. 

The  hand  which  drew  the  silk  along,  and  thus  sets  up  the 
motion  of  the  finger  and  thumb,  will  represent  the  lungs  of  the 
player,  which  press  the  air  between  his  lips,  causing  them  to 
flutter  as  it  passes. 

As  the  finger  and  thumb  were  moved  apart  by  each  passing 
thread,  and  then,  by  the  pressure  exercised  upon  them,  were 
caused  to  fly  together  again  in  the  hollows  between  the  threads, 
so  the  lips  of  tlie  cornet  or  trumpet  player  are  forced  apart  by 
each  passing  air  particle,  and  then,  by  the  pressure  exercised 
upon  tliem,  are  caused  to  come  together  again  when  the  air 
particle  has  passed. 

How  this  will  illustrate  also  the  action  of  air  upon  reeds, and 
upon  the  vocal  chords  themselves,  need  not  be  pointed  out, 
since  it  is  so  similar  that,  understanding  one,  we  shall  also  un- 
derstand the  other. 

We  may  use  our  rough-and-ready  experiment,  however, 
while  we  have  it  in  hand,  to  demonstrate  what  has  been  said 
in  regard  to  pitch  and  power  of  tone.  If  we  move  the  hand 
slowly  over  the  threads  of  silk,  we  get  a  low  tone  As  we 
gradually  quicken  the  movement,  so  we  gradually  raise  the 
pitch  of  the  sound.  Thus  we  prove  that  slow  vibrations  pro- 
duce low  sounds,  and  rapid  vibrations  produce  high  sounds. 

If  we  hold  the  ribbon  loosely  with  the  finger  and  thumb,  we 
get  but  a  very  faint  sound.  As  we  increase  the  pressure  upon 
it,  so  we  increase  the  power  of  the  tone  produced,  although  we 


14  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

do  not  alter  the  pace  at  which  the  material  is  being  drawn 
along.  The  movements  of  the  finger  and  thumb  in  tlie  first 
case  were  slight;  in  the  latter  case  the  pressure  caused  them 
to  come  together  more  closely  in  the  hollows  between  the 
threads,  and  their  swing  to  and  fro  was  greater,  resulting  in  a 
louder  tone.  So  with  the  voice— if  we  breathe  lightly  upon  the 
vocal  chords,  the  vibration,  or  swing  to  and  fro,  is  slight  and 
the  tone  soft;  if  the  pressure  from  the  lungs  be  increased,  while 
at  the  same  time  we  hold  the  note  to  the  same  pitch,  the  vocal 
chords  vibrate  with  a  greater  swing,  and  give  forth  a  louder 
tone.  Similarly  upon  the  piano,  a  light  touch  causes  the  wire 
to  vibrate  with  a  slight  movement,  and  a  soft  sound  is  ob- 
tained; a  heavy  touch  increases  the  swing  of  the  wire,  and  a 
corresponding  increase  of  power  is  heard  as  the  result. 

Tlie  same  amplitude  of  wave  in  instruments  of  a  different 
nature  may  not,  and,  in  fact,  does  not,  always  produce  sounds 
of  equal  power.  Tone  has  a  quality  which  we  speak  of  as 
color,  by  which  quality  the  sounds  of  different  instruments  and 
different  voices  are  distinguished  one  from  another.  The  tone 
color  of  musical  instruments  differs  according  to  the  means 
used  in  the  generation  of  the  sounds.  Some  sounds  are  more 
penetrating  than  others  of  similar  wave-length,  and  are  audible 
at  a  greater  distance,  just  as  some  colors  are  distinguishable  at 
a  greater  distance  than  others.  The  reason  for  this  has  not  as 
yet  been  explained,  and  until  more  is  known  concerning  tone- 
color,  certain  anomalies  arc  likely  to  remain  a  puzzle  to  our 
theorists  in  sound. 

Let  us  turn  to  notice  next  how  vibration  is  produced  in  in- 
struments such  as  the  violin,  viola,  or  violoncello. 

Atoms  of  resin  strewn  upon  the  hairs  of  the  bow  here  take 
the  place  of  air  particles,  and  these  being  drawn  across  the 
string  stir  it  into  vibration.  Every  atom  urges  the  string  in  the 
direction  it  is  itself  being  made  to  pass,  and  the  string  by  its 
own  tension  flies  into  the  hollow  between  the  atoms  as  each 
one  passes.  Thus  vibration  is  set  up,  varying  in  rapidity  as 
the  string  varies  in  tension  or  in  length. 

In  similar  fashion  the  vibration  of  an  ordinary  tumbler  or 
wineglass  can  be  produced  by  passing  the  finger,  after  dipping 
it  into  water,  around  its  edge.  The  water  particles  cause  the 
glass  to  bend  in  the  direction  the  finger  is  passing,  and  after 


THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  15 

each  lias  pulled  it  a  certain  distance^  its  elasticity  causes  it  to 
fly  back  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  motion  being  repeated 
with  great  rapidity  gives  forth  the  tone  whicli  we  hear.  If  the 
glass  be  partly  filled  with  water,  we  may  notice  upon  its  sur- 
face, while  sound  is  issuing,  a  number  of  very  small  ripples. 
These  are  thrown  off  by  the  vibration  of  the  glass,  and  will  be 
to  us  an  indication  of  the  rapidity  of  its  movement.  We  may 
notice,  too,  liow  they  follow  our  finger  round  the  glass,  being 
at  all  times  thrown  out  from  just  beneath  the  spot  over  which 
the  finger  is  passing,  showing  this  to  be  the  place  where  vibra- 
tion is  kindled. 

In  many  instruments  vibration  is  set  up  by  a  blow,  as  in  bells, 
cymbals,  triangle,  and  the  pianoforte,  whicli  instrument,  by  far 
the  most  important  and  popular  of  this  class,  will  be  more  fully 
spoken  of  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

In  another  class  we  still  find  preserved  the  ancient  form  of 
setting  the  strings  in  motion  by  plucking  them  with  the  fingers. 
Of  these  instruments  the  best  known  are  the  harp,  the  guitar, 
the  banjo,  and  the  zilher — the  harp  in  this  class  ranking  witli 
the  piano  in  the  class  just  mentioned,  us  the  superior  and  more 
important  instrument. 

We  have  spoken  of  musical  sounds,  and  have  endeavored  to 
show  how  they  are  produced;  we  must  next  consider  the  sys- 
tem of  notation,  by  which  we  shall  learn  the  names  and  also 
the  position  upon  musical  instruments  of  the  various  sounds 
used  in  the  composition  of  music. 


CHAPTER    III 
THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION 

The  singular  name  "  pianoforte,"  or,  to  put  it  in  English,  the 
soft-loud,  seems  to  demand  a  word  of  explanation. 

The  immediate  predecessor  of  this  instrument  was  the  liarpsi- 
chord,  the  wires  of  wliich  were  plucked  with  the  pointed  quill 
of  a  feather.  The  key  being  pressed  down  with  the  finger, 
the  quill  would  bend  against  the  wire,  and  tiit-n  fly  off.  leaving 
the  wire  to  swing  to  and  fro,  and  thus  give  forth  its  tone.    Tliis 


16 


6XJIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


action  was,  of  course,  an  imitation  of  the  plucking  of  the 
strings  of  the  harp  by  the  fingers  of  the  performer. 

Now,  whether  the  key  was  struck  heavily  or  lightly,  the 
power  of  tone  of  the  harpsichord  remained  tlie  same,  for  this 
was  dependent  upon  the  strength  of  pull  by  the  quill  upon 
the  wire.  With  a  heavy  blow  it  flew  past  the  wire  quickly, 
•with  a  light  touch  it  simply  passed  more  slowly,  but  in  each 
case  it  imparted  the  same  swing  to  the  wire  and  produced  the 
same  tone.  To  enable  the  performer  to  obtain  loud  effects  a 
second  row  of  quills  was  added,  which  could  be  brought  into 
play  by  drawing  a  stop  Strong  contrasts  of  tone,  and  gradual 
increase  from  soft  to  loud,  could  not,  however,  be  produced, 
and  therefore  the  harpsichord  could  never  have  been  regarded 
as  a  satisfactory  instrument. 

The  invention  of  a  hammer,  by  the  blow  of  which  the  tone 
of  the  string  was  produced,  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the 
harpsichord.  At  once  it  was  pointed  out  as  the  most  notable 
gain  that  with  a  soft  touch  the  tone  was  piano  and  with  a  heavy 
touch  the  tone  was  forte,  and  thus  the  instrument  came  to  be 
spoken  of  as  one  upon  which  the  performer  could  play  inano 
and  forte.  From  this  it  soon  became  customary  to  speak  of  it 
as  the  "pianoforte,"  and  as  no  better  name  suggested  itself 
it  has  been  known  by  this  ever  since,  though  we  rarely  use  its 
full  name  now,  but  speak  of  it  commonly  as  the  "  piano." 

The  familiar  keyboard  of  white  and  black  notes  is  here  given 


A  c 


C  c  CI 

{Great  C.)  (Tenor  C)  (Middle  C.) 

Fig.  17. 


THE  PIAKOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


17 


(Fig.  17),  and  reference  to  this  will  be  made  in  tlie  following 
remarks  upon  musical  notation. 

Beneath  the  keyboard  are  two  sets  of  five  lines,  and  upon,  or 
between,  these  and  the  short  added  lines  above  and  below  are 
placed  oval  shaped  signs  which  are  called  notes. 

The  five  lines  are  called  the  stave. 

The  notes  written  upon  and  between  them  are  named  from 
A  to  6,  in  alphabetical  order. 

The  signs  ^  and  ^  are  called  clefs,  and  these  determine  the 

pitch  of  the  sounds  written  in  the  stave,  and  their  consequent 
position  upon  the  keyboard  of  tl»e  piano. 

Thus  the  sign  ffi  is  called  the  treble  or  G  clef,  and  when  this 

is  placed  upon  the  stave,  notes  written  upon  the  second  line, 
that  around  wliich  the  clef  sign  curls,  are  called  G. 

This  is  a  note  of  middle  compass,  and  is  found  in  the  middle, 
or  fourth  octave  of  the  piano.  From  this  the  position  and 
names  of  other  notes  upon  the  stave  may  be  determined.  Upon 
the  first  line  will  be  E,  the  middle  E  of  the  piano  ;  in  the  first 
space  will  be  F,  the  note  above  this,  and  in  similar  order  notes 
will  follow  throughout  the  stave,  and  the  lines  added  above 
and  beneatli  it. 


On  the  added  lines.    Above  the  added  lines. 


Notes  on  the  lines.    In  the  spaces. 


.ces.      T».:fc^  -^-fj- 


D  G  B 


w 


5  G  B^*^"     G  B  D  F  A  C  '"J^ 


E  G  B  U  F  F  A  C  E      ACE 


Below  the 
added  lines. 


The  sign  ^  is  called  the  bass  or  the  F  clef,  and  when  this 

is  placed  upon  the  stave,  notes  written  upon  the  fourth  line, 
that  around  which  the  sign  curls,  are  called  F. 

This  is  a  note  of  lower  compass,  and  is  found  in  the  third 
octave  of  the  piano.     As  in  the  treble  clef,  so  here,  all  other 

2 


18 


ODIOK  TO  MUSIC. 


notes  have  their  names  and  positions  determined  by  this  one. 
They  will  be  found  as  follows: 


Notes  on  the  lines.    In  the  spaces, 


On  the  added  lines.  Above  and  below  the 
added  lines. 


^ 


m 


E   C   A   F 


F   D   B  G 


im 


T=f 


m 


GBDFAACEG      CE 


■:^3   B   D   F 


These  are  the  two  clefs  commonly  used  for  the  piano.  The 
right  hand  usually  plays  the  notes  written  in  the  treble  clef, 
the  left  hand  those  written  in  the  bass  clef,  the  two  being 
bracketed  together,  thus: 


^=1 


Should  the  clef  be  changed  at  any  point  in  a  composition, 
the  names  and  positions  of  all  the  notes  change  at  once  with  it. 

Thus,  in  the  following  passage,  with  the  cliange  of  clef,  the 
notes  for  the  right  hand  at  once  become  lower  than  those  for 
the  left  hand. 


^^^ 


W^^^ 


The  actual  position  of  the  notes  will  appear  more  clearly 
written  thus: 


i 


^ 


i=f 


^ 


THE  PIANOFOKTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


19 


The  hand  and  the  eye  must  be  taught  to  give  instant  obedi- 
ence to  the  clef  signs,  therefore  this  lesson  should  be  well  learned. 

In  tlie  following  passage,  at  tlie  change  of  clef,  the  left  hand 
notes  become  at  once  higher  than  those  for  the  riglit  hand. 


— 'S'— ^— '^   ^    J      Another  form 
of  writing 
&^  jIy^SE^'^  the  passage. 


f^^^^ 


^m. 


$ 


Althougli  the  two  staves  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  wide  space,  the  actual  distance 
between  them  as  regards  the  pitch  and  position 
of  the  notes  is  not  great.  Thus,  the  two  notes 
here  Avritten  are  C  and  D,  next  to  each  other 
in  the  middle  octave  of  the  piano. 

There  is  in  fact  but  one  line  between  the  staves,  and  adding 
this,  and  placing  the  other  lines  in  order  above 
and  below  it,  we  obtain  what  is  called  the  great 
stave  with  eleven  lines,  wliich  stave  was  at  one 
time  in  general  use.     Upon  the  middle  line  was 


—  or  -^-,  which  is  called 


placed  the  sign 

the  C  clef,  and  all  notes  upon  this  line  would  be  played  or 
sung  as  the  middle  C  of  the  piano. 

The  confusion  which  arose  in  four-part  music  with  such  a 
system  of  writing  led  to  the  striking  out  of  the  middle  line, 
widening  the  space  between  the  five  upper  and  five  lower 
lines,  and  using  added  lines  between  the  slaves  as  well  as  above 
and  below  them. 


W 


The  added  line  here  given  above  the  bass  and 
below  the  treble  is  a  fragment  of  the  same  line 
(the  discarded  middle  line  of  the  great  stave), 
and  the  notes  written  upon  it  are  one  and  the 
same,  the  middle  C  of  the  piano. 


20 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


To  avoid  confusion  in  reading  the  eye  must  become  accus- 
tomed to  all  these  seeming  differences  m  the  position  of  notes 
between  tlie  staves,  and  to  this  end  the  point  has  been  thus 
prominently  mentioned. 

Where  the  C  clef  is  used  the  notes  upon  and  between  the 
lines  have  their  names  and  positions  determined  by  this  C. 


When  the  sign  is  placed  upon  the  third  line   E  S:zz£   notes 

upon  that  line  are  C,  and  from  this  they  will  be  named  as  fol- 
lows: 


On  the  lines. 


In  the  spaces. 


CEO 


« 


G      B      D 


This  is  called  the  alto  clef,  and  it  is  used  for  the  viola  (tenor 
violin),  and  in  certain  cases  for  trombones  in  orcliestral  music. 
In  vocal  music  it  was  formerly  intended  for  male  voices  sing- 
ing what  was  called  the  alto  {altus,  high)  part,  the  compass  of 
which  voices  lay  over  these  notes.  As  this  part  is  now  so  fre- 
quently sung  by  women,  the  compass  of  whose  voices  is  higher 
than  men's,  it  is  usual  in  the  present  time  to  write  the  part  in 


the  treble  ffi,  or  G  clef. 

The  same  or  a  similar  sign  upon  the  fourth  line 
give  us  the  notes  in  the  following  altered  position: 


will 


81 


On  the  lines. 


m 


In  the  spaces. 


E      G      B      D 


This  is  called  the  tenor  clef,  and  it  is  used  for  the  writing  of 
the  higher  notes  for  violoncello  and  bassoon  among  orchestral 
instruments,  and  for  the  part  sung  by  the  tenors  in  vocal  music, 
though  this  clef  is  also  much  less  used  for  voices  than  it  for- 
merly was,  tenor  music  being  generally  written  in  the  fe  G 


clef,  and  sung  an  octave  lower. 


THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  21 

Intervals,  the  Octave. — The  distance  from  one  note  to  an- 
other, above  or  below,  is  called  an  Interval. 

The  interval  from  one  note  to  the  next  of  the  same  name, 
above  or  below,  is  called  an  octave,  and  a  study  of  this  brings 
with  it  some  useful  information  concerning  agreement  in 
sounds. 

If  we  touch  any  such  two  notes  together,  C  and  C,  we  find 
them  to  be  so  strongly  in  sympathy  that  they  sound  almost  as 
one.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  tlie  vibration  of  the  upper 
note  is  exactly  twice  as  rapid  as  that  of  the  lower;  if  the 
lower  note  has  fifty  vibrations  in  a  second,  the  upper  one  has  a 
hundred;  or  if  the  lower  one  has  one  hundred  vibrations,  the 
upper  will  have  two  hundred.  Altliough  these  are  different 
rates  of  vibration,  there  is  agreement  in  them  which  almost 
any  ear  can  perceive,  just  as  the  eye  can  perceive  the  agree- 
ment in  two  such  sets  of  lines  as  tiiese  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 
although  each  are  separated  by  differ-  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i 
ent  distances.  In  the  upper  set  we  '  '  I  I  I  I  I  ' 
have  two  lines  for  every  one  in  the  lower  set;  so,  in  the  upper 
note  of  an  octave,  we  have  two  vibrations  for  every  one  of 
the  lower  note,  and  this  produces  the  agreement  we  have  al- 
ready noticed. 

Semitone. — Starting  with  C  on  the  piano,  and  playing  suc- 
cessive white  keys  up  to  the  next  C,  the  order  of  sounds  seems 
quite  natural  to  us;  while,  if  we  start  with  any  other  note  than 
C,  still  playing  only  white  keys,  the  order  appears  unnatural 
anil  incorrect.  By  tiiis  we  perceive  that  tlie  difference  of  pitch 
between  tlie  white  keys  is  not  the  same  in  all  cases.  From  C 
to  D  is  a  wider  interval  than  from  E  to  F,  and  this  wider  in- 
terval is  called  a  tone,  the  smaller  one  being  called  a  semitone. 

It  is  necessary  in  musical  notation  to  have  signs  by  which 
the  interval  of  a  semitone  can  be  indicated  anywliere  upon  the 
stave. 

The  Sharp. — To  raise  a  note  one  semitone  the  sign  8,  called 

a  sharp,  is  placed  before  it,  thus,  tr|jj^3 

The  Flat.— To  lower  a  note  one  semitone  the  sign  },,  called 
o.flat,  is  placed  before  it,  thus,  —^—^ 


Provision  is  made  upon  every  instrument  of  any  importance 


22 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


for  the  playing  of  such  notes.     Between  those  white  keys  of 
the  piano  which  are  a  tone  apart  we  tind  a  black  key,  whichv 
gives  us  a  sound  midway  between  these,  thus  enabling  us  to 
divide  the  tone  into  two  semitones. 


To  play  the  following  note,  G  sharp. 


we  strike 


the  black  key  above  (i.  e.,  to  the  right  of)  the  middle  G. 
To  play  G  flat, 


^ we  strike  the  black  key  below 


(i.e.,  to  the  left  of)  the  middle  G. 

The  Natural. — To  restore  either  note  to  the  natural  G  (white 
key)  again,  the  sign  t],  called  a  natural,  is  used.  This  is  placed, 
like  the  sharps  and  flats,  before  the  note,  thus: 


i 


^E 


=W; 


3^ 


Black  note 
above  G. 


G 

White  note. 


Black  note  G 

below  G.     White  note. 


To  avoid  errors  in  reading,  learn  to  distinguish  at  once  when 
the  sharp,  flat,  or  natural  is  on  the  line,  and  w'hen  in  the  space. 
If  on  the  line  the  signs  will  be  cut  through  thus:  -^— fi— ^  ;  if 
in  the  space  the  lines  will  pass  above  and  below  this  part  of 
the  signs,  thus:     $   a  b    . 


The  sharp  here  being  in  the  space 


applies  to  A  in 


the  space,  although  many  would  mistake  it  as  applying  to  G, 
owing  to  its  nearness  to  this  note. 


The  flat  here  ^S-'*^*=q  applies  to  B  on  the  line,  although 
it  is  placed  nearer  to  A. 

The  natural  here  B^ni^3  applies  to  F  in  the  space,  al- 
though it  is  closer  to  G. 

It  is  often  impossible  to  place  sharps  or  flats  close  to  the 


THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


23 


notes  they  are  intended  to  afifect;  their  position  upon  the  stave 
must  guide  us  in  determining  to  which  notes  they  belong. 

Sharps  and  flats  are  not  always  played  upon  the  black  keys 
of  the  piano.  The  distance  between  the  white  keys  E  and  F, 
and  B  and  C,  being  but  a  semitone,  each  of  these  notes  be- 
comes in  turn  the  sharp  or  flat  of  the  other.     If  a  sharp  be 


placed  before  E,  [-^_^J — ]  the  note  played  will  be  the  next 
white  key  above — viz.,  F,  although  it  will  now  be  called  E 
sharp.    So  for  B  sharp  [-(^1*' — ]  we  shall  play  the  next  white 


key  above— viz. ,  C,  which  will  now  be  called  B  sliarp. 
For  C  flat  \::^  '"    3  we  shall  play  the  next  white  key  below, 


as  also  we  shall  for  F  flat 


the  reason  for  this  being 


the  same  in  each  case,  that  from  E  to  F,  and  from  C  to  B  is  a 
semitone. 

The  Double  Sharp. — To  preserve  a  certain  uniformity  in 
writing  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  sign  by  which  a  note  already 
sharp  can  be  further  sharpened  by  another  semitone.  The 
sign  used  is  called  a  double  shai-p,  written  x ,  and  the  method  of 
its  employment  the  following  examples  will  show: 


--^- 


=S*= 


m 


=t 


m- 


=|: 


ixaf: 


One  semitone 
above  F. 


One  semitone 
above  F  sliarp. 


One  semitone 
above  C. 


One  semitone 
above  C  sliarp. 


The  Double  Flat. — Similarly,  a  note  already  flat  can  be 
further  flattened  by  another  semitone,  the  sign  for  which,  bh,  is 
called  a  double  flat. 


^i 


=&fe 


i 


l^E5t 


S 


d: 


One  semitone 
below  B. 


One  .semitone 
below  13  flat. 


One  semitone 
below  E. 


One  semitone 
below  E  flat. 


24 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Should  a  double  sharp  ( x)  be  prefixed  to  a  note  not  already 
marked  sharp,  we  may  take  it  that  such  note  is  sharp  by  in- 
ference.    In  the  following  example,  for  instance,  the  F  is  not 


i 


m 


:3pi 


$ 


One  semitone 
above  F  sharp. 

already  sharpened  by  a  sign,  the  key  signature  being  that  of  C  ; 
but  the  passage  quoted  is  in  the  kejr  of  E,  four  sharps,  there- 
fore F  is  sharp  already,  and  the  sign  x  raises  the  note  one 
semitone  further. 

So  with  the  double  flat,  to  whatever  note  it  is  prefixed,  we 
know  that  such  note  is  fiat  alreadyj  and  the  sign  bfe  lowers  it 
one  semitone  further. 


^^^=^m 


1  '  I 

One  semitone 
below  ii  flat. 

In  the  key  of  the  above  example,  B  is  already  flat,  although 
not  marked  so,  and  with  the  sign  \^  it  becomes  one  semitone 
lower  still. 

When  a  note  has  been  made  sharp  or  flat,  or  has  been  altered 
by  any  of  the  foregoing  signs  in  the  course  of  a  composition, 
the  sign  remains  in  force  tiiroughout  the  bar  (i.e.,  the  space 
between  two  perpendicular  lines  across  the  stave),  unless  con- 
tradicted by  another  sign. 

To  restore  a  double  sharp  or  a  double  fiat  to  the  original  note 
of  the  key,  or  to  the  white  note,  the  plan  adopted  is  as  follows: 


C  double  sharp,  becomes  C  sharp. 


i 


r=t 


12*- 


A  double  sharp,  becomes  A  natural. 


B  double  flat,  becomes  B  flat. 


=1- 


ESS= 


G  double  flat,  becomes  G  natural. 


THE  PIANOFORTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


25 


The  following  examples  will  show  the  usefulness  of  the 
signs  double  sharp  and  double  flat. 
Here  is  a  short  phrase  in  the  key  of  C. 


i 


^ 


d»= 


p 

A 

Raised 

Lowered 

one  semitone. 

one  semitone 

The  same  phrase  is  here  given  in  the  key  of  Ct  (an  explana- 
tion of  the  seven  sharp  signature  of  which,  together  with  all 
other  keys,  will  follow  these  examples). 


^^:^=;3^^^E^^EEJ; 


F  sharp  A  sharp 

Raised  Lowered 

one  semitone.       one  semitone. 

The  double  sharp  occurs  where  the  sharp  did  in  the  previous 
example.  As  we  had  F  raised  by  a  semitone  before,  so  here 
we  have  F  sharp  similarly  raised  a  semitone. 

The  same  phrase  is  again  given,  this  time  in  the  key  of  C 
flat,  showing  how  A  being  flat  already,  is  further  flattened  by 
the  sign  of  tlic  "double  flat. 

G  F  G  A  G 


^p^fe 


=|: 


=5*= 


ife 


3^^ 


F  flat  A  flat 

Raised  Lowered 

one  semitone.        one  semitone. 


These  examples  are  suflicient  to  show  how  uniformity  of 
writing  is  preserved  in  different  keys  by  the  use  of  such  signs. 

AVithout  them  we  should  indeed  be  badly  off  in  writing  such 
passages  as : 


26 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


•which,  without  double  sharps  and  double  flats,  could  only  be 
written  in  some  such  confusing  manner  as  the  following: 


Key  Signatures. — Key  signatures  are  employed  to  denote 
the  changes  necessary  to  produce  a  scale  similar  to  that  of  C, 
tliough  taking  some  other  note  as  the  starting-point.  If  we 
take  G,  the  fifth  note  from  C,  and  play  consecutive  notes  up- 
ward, we  find  that  our  scale  requires  F  sharp  instead  of  F,  as 
the  seventh  note,  to  render  it  perfect  in  form. 

In  all  compositions  in  this  key,  F  sharp  is  therefore  given  at 
the  commencement  of  the  stave  thus: 


m 


and  all  F's  are  played  sharp  throughout  the  entire  composition, 
unless  otherwise  marked. 

Starting  with  D,  the  fifth  note  in  the  scale  of  G,  we  find  two 
sharps  necessary  to  produce  the  perfect  scale. 


f 


S 


Again  starting  with  the  fifth  note  of  the  scale  of  D,  we  find 
three  sharps  are  required. 


m 


^?—^ 


THE  PIANOFOUTE  AND  MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


27 


and  so  on,  until  we  have  completed  the  table  of  sharp  keys 
given  below. 

Sharp  Keys,  with  their  Key-notes. 


Progressing  downward  from  C,  five  notes  each  lime,  we  find 
first  one  flat,  then  two  flats  required,  and  so  on,  until  we  have 
completed  the  table  of  flat  keys,  as  below. 

Flat  Keys,  with  their  Key-notes. 


1-^: 

_,_j- 

-fi 

:fc-^F= 

A^— At— 

b  '\^\b 

A-h>r— 

iT 

0 

■€S- 

P 

X 1 oJ 

B  flat    E  flat 

-rb .h    rzr 

A  flat        D  flat 

Gflat 

-<s»- 
Cflat 

1^ 



E^ 

-■b—^>--b^ 

^^r:-^-— 

^W— 

fe^^^=±JU 

Major  Scale. — The  scale  we  liave  thus  far  considered  is 
called  the  Major  scale.  Tlic  starling  note  is  that  from  which 
the  scale  is  named.  Thus  the  scale  we  first  formed  was  from 
C  to  C,  and  tliis  is  therefore  the  scale  of  C  Major,  called  also 
the  natural  key,  as  no  sharps  or  flats  are  needed  in  writing  it, 
and  none  but  tlie  wliite  keys  of  the  piano  are  used  in  playing  it. 

The  other  scales  in  sharp  or  flat  keys  take  their  names  in 
similar  fashion  from  their  respective  key-notes,  which  tlie  fore- 
going tables  will  show. 

Each  major  scale  has  a  relative  minor  scale,  the  key-note  of 
which  is  the  third  note  (playing  downward)  of  the  major 
scale.  Thus  A  is  the  third  note  downward  in  the  scale  of  C, 
and  A  is  the  relative  minor  of  C. 


28  GUTOE  TO  MUSIC. 

No  new  signature  is  employed  for  minor  keys;  tbey  take  the 
signature  of  tlie  major  key  to  which  they  are  related. 

Minor  Scales. — Of  minor  scales  there  are  two  forms  in  each 
key,  the  points  of  difference  between  which  are  marked  by 
sharps  or  naturals  where  they  occur,  and  not  in  the  key  sig- 
nature. 

The  Harmonic  Minor  Scale  is  here  given  in  the  key  of  A. 


f^fr^FF^^^^^^^^i^^^^T^ 


In  this,  the  seventh  note,  G,  is  raised  by  the  sharp,  and  the 
scale  is  the  same  ascending  and  descending. 
The  Melodic  Minor  Scale  of  the  same  key  will  be  seen  to  con- 


tain two  sharpened  notes,  the  sixth  and  the  seventh,  F  and  G, 
in  ascending,  both  of  which  notes  are,  however,  lowered  again 
by  the  sign  of  the  natural  in  descending. 

Accidentals. — All  sharps,  flats,  and  naturals  which  occur 
during  the  progression  of  a  composition  are  termed  Accidentals. 
Such  sharps  and  flats  as  denote  tts  key  at  the  beginning  of 
eacli  stave  are  not  so  called.  An  accidental  I'emains  in  force 
throughout  the  bar  in  which  it  appears,  unless  by  the  intro- 
duction of  some  other  sign  this  note  is  restored  to  its  former 
position,  or  is  subjected  to  some  other  change.  Thus  the  C  in 
the  following  example  is  sharp  at  the  end  of  the  bar,  because 
of  the  sharp  which  occurs  at  the  beginning. 


3d=Jz^^=J=jM 


Mistakes  in  reading  would  be  much  less  frequent  if  the  stu- 
dent would  incline  towards  expecting  the  recurrence  of  the 


MEASURE  IN   MUSIC.  29 

accidentals  in  the  bar,  rather  than  towards  expecting  the  note 
in  its  original  position  again.  For  probably  more  often  than 
not  the  accidental  does  affect  other  notes  than  the  one  against 
which  it  is  placed,  and  where  it  is  not  so  we  have  always  the 
contradicting  sign  to  remind  us.  Thus,  in  the  example  given, 
if  the  C  at  the  end  of  the  bar  were  not  sharp,  the  sign  of  the 
natural  would  be  there  to  tell  us  so. 


CHAPTER   IV 
MEASCKE  IN  MUSIC 

By  means  of  different -shaped  notes  a  certain  time  value  is 
given  to  all  the  sounds  employed  in  music.  These  notes  are, 
as  it  were,  the  coinage  of  the  musical  realm. 

This  coinage  of  musical  notes  consists  of  but  one  family,  the 
members  of  which  all  have  direct  relationship  the  one  to  the 
other.  No  matter  what  the  country  may  be,  the  time  valua- 
tion in  musical  notes  is  the  same  ;  in  print  tlie  notation  is  also 
the  same  ;  and  the  knowledge  of  the  musical  language  as  we 
know  it  here  brings  with  it  the  free  enjoyment  of  the  music 
of  every  nationality  in  wliich  the  art  is  known. 

Breve. — The  longest  note  in  use  at  the  present  time  is  called 
a  Brere,  an  oval-sliaped  note,  with  lines,  or  a  line,  on  cither 
side,  IWI  W  ;  but  as  this  is  rarely  found  in  any  but  church 
music,  it  does  not  stand  first  in  importance  for  consideration 
A  reference  to  it,  however,  makes  clear  the  origin  of  the  name 
given  to  the  note  which  comes  next  in  order,  the  Semtbrece,  or 
W/iole-nofc 

Whole-note  (or  Semibreve). — This  is  the  longest  note  used 
in  music  (with  the  exception  of  some  music  written  for  the 
Cluirch).  This  note  is  in  shape  like  the  breve,  but  without  the 
lines  at  tiie  side,  a,  and  is,  as  its  name  implies  (,w//«'-breve),  half 
the  length  of  a  breve,  where  the  latter  is  used,  but  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  the  reader  can  treat  the  whole-note  (c)  as  tlie 
largest  factor  in  the  values  of  notes. 

laking  the  notes  now  as  they  follow  in  order  from  long  lo 


80  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

short,  each  one  will  be  found  to  be  of  exactly  half  the  value  of 
the  one  preceding  it.  This  is  the  direct  relationship  already 
spoken  of. 

Half-note  (or  Minim). — By  adding  a  stem  to  the  whole-note, 
we  get  a  half-note,  ^,  half  the  value  of  the  whole-note.    . 

Quarter-note  (or  Crotchet). — By  making  the  body  of  the  note 
b'"ck,  we  get  a  quarter-note,  J,  half  the  value  of  the  half-note. 

Eighth-note  (or  Quaver). — Adding  a  sort  of  hook  to  the  stem 
of  tliis  note  it  becomes  an  eighth-note,  J*,  half  the  value  of  the 
quarter-note. 

Sixteenth-note  (or  Semiquaver). — With  two  such  hooks  or 

dashes,  the  note  becomes  a  sixteenth-note,  ^,  half  the  value  of 
an  eighth-note. 
Thirty-second-note  (or  Demisemiqiiaver).  —  With  three,  a 

thirty-sccond-note,  J^,  lialf  the  value  of  a  sixteenth-note. 
Sixty- fourth-note  for  Semi-demisemiquaver). — With  four 

hooks,  a  Sixty-fourth-note,  J^,  half  the  value  of  a  thirty  second- 
note. 

To  say  that  a  clear  understanding  of  the  relative  value  of 
these  notes  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  tliose  who  would 
render  music  intelligently,  is  equal  to  saying  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  relative  value  of  our  pieces  of  money  is  important  to 
those  who  wish  to  buy  and  sell.  It  is  more  thiin  important — 
it  is  absolutely  necessary.  Yet  how  many  fairly  good  per- 
formers upon  the  piano  are  there  who  are  guided  more  by  the 
position  in  which  the  notes  are  printed  than  bj'  their  actual 
time  value  ?  playing  those  notes  together  which  are  printed 
over  one  another,  and  varying  the  pace  of  notes  of  the  same 
kind,  as  they  happen  to  be  printed  wide  apart  or  close  to- 
gether ! 

In  the  following  table  five  notes  only  are  given,  and  a  clear 
knowledge  of  these  will  lead  safely  to  an  understanding  of  all 
others.  To  carry  the  comparison  of  notes  with  coins  one  step 
further,  a  relative  money  table  is  also  given,  in  which  we  illus- 
trate the  fractional  value  of  the  notes  by  the  dollar  and  its  sub- 
divisions. 


MEASURE  IN   MUSIC. 


31 


Whole-note 

a 

Semibreve 

'  $1  00. 

Half -note 

J 

Minim 

50  cents 

Quarter-note 

J 

Crotchet          .     - 

25      " 

Eighth-note 

/ 

Quaver 

12i    " 

Sixteenth-note 

^ 

Semiquaver     . 

.   6i    " 

The  relation  of  the  notes  one  to  the  other  is  exactly  the  same 
in  time  value  as  that  of  the  coins  iu  money  value;  and  the  stu- 
dent of  music  should,  of  course,  understand  the  one  table  quite 
as  clearly  as  the  other. 

Dotted  Notes. — A  dot  placed  after  a  note,  <J.  adds  half  of 
the  value  of  the  note  to  itself  ;  a  dotted  half-note  is  therefore 
as  long  as  a  half-note  and  quarter-note  put  togetlier.  Two  dots 
will  add  to  a  note  three-fourths  of  the  note's  value  ;  a  double 
dotted  half-note  is  therefore  as  long  as  a  half-note,  a  quarter- 
note,  and  an  eighth-note  pat  together. 

The  following  table  will  give  other  examples: 


equal  to    ,-p    J 

.. .. ..  z^^ 


J-  ■ ..  ..  J^J- 


Tie. — The  line  used  to  indicate  that  notes  are  bound  together 
is  called  a  tie,  J   _^,  or  J   J*,  and  this  is  used  where  a  certain 

length  of  sound  is  required  that  cannot  be  indicated  by  dots. 
Tims,  if  the  length  of  a  lialf-note  and  an  eighth-note  be  need- 
ed, as  no  process  of  dotting  will  give  it,  it  is  obtained  thus, 
sJ_^,  by  ticing  the  two  notes  together.  Also,  where  a  sound  is 
required  to  last  from  one  bar  into  another,  |  cjIjJ,  the  tie  is 
asrain  used. 


82  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Slur  (or  Legato). — AVhen  this  line  embraces  notes  of  different 
pitch  it  is  called  a  slur.  Its  meaning  is  still  "  to  bind  together  " 
or  "render  smoothly,"  and  therefore  to  singers,  and  wind  and 
stringed  instrument  players,  it  is  almost  the  same  thing  as  a 
tie.  Passages  so  marked  would  be  rendered  with  sustained 
tone,  with  one  breath,  or  with  one  smooth  movement  of  the  bow. 

Rests. — 'J'o  indicate  silence  the  same  system  of  measure- 
ments is  employed  as  to  indicate  length  of  sounds,  though  dif- 
ferent signs  called  rests  have  to  be  used. 

Side  by  side  with  the  notes  are  here  given  the  rests  which 
correspond  to  them  in  name  and  in  time  value.  For  each  of 
these  rests  the  same  time  must  be  allowed  to  pass  in  silence  as 
would  be  occupied  in  sounding  the  note  of  the  same  name. 


SIXTKESTH- 


TIIIRTY- 
SKCOXD- 

Notc.  Rest.  Note.  Rest.  Note.  Rest.  Notf.  Rest.    Note.  Rest.    Note.  Rest. 


iM^^i^ 


Below  Above  or         Turns  to    Turns  to  Two  Tliree 

the  line,    upon  the  line,    the  right,    the  left,    dashes  like  dashes  like 

the  note.      the  note. 


The  difference  between  the  whole-rest  and  half-rest  and  the 
quarter -rest  and  eighth -rest  should  be  carefully  noted.  The 
whole -rest,  the  longer,  is  placed  below  the  fourth  line  of  the 
stave  ;  the  half-rest,  tlie  shorter,  is  al)ore  the  third  line.  The 
quarter-rest,  the  longci',  turns  to  the  right,  like  a  reversed  fig- 
ure seven,  I- ;  the  eighth-rest,  the  shorter,  turns  to  the  left,  like 
the  figure  seven,  -i.  To  avoid  confusion  between  Quarter-rest, 
the  quarter-rest  and  the  eighth-rest,  in  some  .sys 


^^ 


tems  of  music  printing  the  quarter-rest  is  given 
in  one  of  the  following  ways  : 

Dotted  Rests. — A  dot  following  a  rest  affects  it  just  as  it 
does  a  note,  making  it  half  as  long  again. 

The  time  value  of  notes  and  rests  varies,  not  in  relation  one 
to  the  other,  but  in  regard  to  tlieir  actual  length,  according  as 
the  music  is  slow  or  fast.  As  we  can  always  with  a  dollar  buy 
more  bread  than  meat,  so  a  whole-note  represents  more  time 
in  a  slow  movement  than  it  docs  in  one  which  is  quick,  but  tlie 
relation  of  the  notes  to  each  other  reniidus  the  same. 


MEASURE  IN  MUSIC. 


88 


Bars. — Following  upon  a  clear  understanding  of  the  measure 
of  sound  iu  notes  should  come  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
measure  of  music  into  bars. 

The  space  between  two  lines  crossing  the  stave  is  called  a  bar. 


Bar. 


Time  Signature. — The  time  value  of  these  bars  is  denoted 
by  what  is  called  the  time  signature,  which  is  placed  next  to 
the  key  signature  at  the  commencement  of  a  movement.  This 
is  not  repeated  witli  each  line  of  music,  but  remains  in  force 
until  a  new  time  signature  is  given. 

Common  Time. — In  the  following  example  the  time  signa- 
ture is  expressed  by  a  letter  C,  which  is  placed  in  both  clefs. 
This  indicates  that  the  music  is  in  quadrtiple,  or  common  time, 
in  which  lime  each  bar  is  of  the  value  oifour  quarter-notes. 


4  quarter-notes.  2  lialf-notes.     8  eiglittinotes. 


4  eighth-notes  and 
1  hair- note. 


mS: 


'^&^^^=^^-^E^^i^^ 


1  whole- note. 


4  quarter- 
notes. 


1  half-note  and       2  quarter-notes  and 

2  quarter-notes.  1  half-note. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  value  of  the  four  quarter-notes  is 
made  up  in  a  variety  of  ways  as  indicated  beneath  eacli  part 
in  the  several  bars.  The  means  of  producing  this  variety  are 
inexhaustible,  for  with  the  notes  of  different  lengths,  dotted 
notes,  and  rests  at  our  disposal,  a  common  time  bar  could  be 
written  iu  millions  of  different  ways! 
3  . 


p 


34  GUroE  TO  B4U8IC. 

Figfure  Signatures. — This  common  time  sig- 
nature is  sometimes  expressed  in  figures,  thus, 
and  in  this,  and  all  signatures  in  figures,  the  lop 
figure  denotes  tlie  number  in  tlie  bar,  and  the  ,_^__^ 
bottom  figure  the  time  value  as  measured  from  /  ^  4- 
a  whole-note.  Thus,  the  figures  5  may  be  read  '^ 
thus:  four  (top  figure)  notes  in  a  bar,  of  the  value  of  (bottom 
figure)  a  fourth  of  a  whole-note — i.  e.,  four  quarter-notes  in  a 
bar. 

The  signature  ^  will  therefore  mean  two  quarter-notes  in  a 
•bar ;  5,  tlwee  quarter-notes  in  a  bar  ;  ^,  six  quarter-notes  in  a  bar  ; 
9,  ni7ie  quarter-notes  in  a  bar. 

Where  2  is  the  bottom  figure,  half-notes  are  the  notes  indi- 
cated, there  being  two  half-notes  in  a  whole-note ;  the  sig- 
nature g  will  therefore  mean  two  lialf -notes  in  a  bar:  and  g,  three 
/lalf-notes  in  a  bar. 

Where  8  is  the  bottom  figure,  eighth-notes  are  the  notes  indi- 
cated, there  being  eight  eighth-notes  in  a  whole-note ;  g  will 
therefore  mean  six  eighth-notes  in  a  bar ;  9,  nine  eighth-notes, 
and  ^§,  twelve  eighth-notes. 

These  are  the  most  ordinary  time  signatures  in  use,  and  be- 
fore mentioning  others,  the  following  classified  table  should  be 
studied: 

Time  Signatures. 

COMMON. 

Simple  Duple.  Compound  Duple. 

5,  two  quarter-notes  in  a  bar.    §,  two  dotted  quarter-notes  in 

a  bar. 

g,  two  half -notes  in  a  bar.  |,  two  dotted  half -notes  in  a 

bar. 


MEASURE  IN  MUSIC.  86 

Siinple  Quadruple.  Compound  Quadruple. 

B,  or  i,  four  quarter-notes  in    ^#,  four  dotted  quarter-notes  in 
a  bar.  a  bar. 

TRIPLE. 

Simple  Triple,  Compound  Triple. 

^,  three  quarter-notes  in  a  bar.    p,  three  dotted  quarter-notes  in 

a  bar. 
g,  three  eighth-notes  in  a  bar.     §,  three  dotted  half -notes  in  a 

bar. 

Duple  and  quadruple  times  may  both  be  called  "common," 
though  a  name  by  which  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other  is 
desirable. 

In  church  music,  half-notes  are  generally  used  in  place  of 
quarter-notes,  and  to  indicate  this  a  line  is  drawn  through  the 

common  time  signature,  ^,  or  it  is  denoted  by  the  figures  g,  four 
half-notes  in  a  bar,  or  g,  two  half-notes  in  a  bar.  By  either  of 
these  signs  we  understand  the  music  to  be  "a  cappella,"  in  the 
church  style,  and  the  half-notes,  though  regarded  as  quarter- 
notes,  are  rendered  in  a  manner  befitting  the  character  of  the 
music. 

These,  with  their  compound  forms,  will  add  to  our  table  as 
follows: 

A   CAPPELLA  (aLLA-BREVE). 

Simple  Duple.  Compound  Duple. 

^,  g,  two  half-notes  in  a  bar.  §,  two  dotted  half-notes. 
Simple  Quadruple.  Compound  Quadruple. 

^,  2.  four  half-notes  in  a  bar.  *J',  four  dotted  half-notes. 

Simple  Triple.  Compound  Triple. 

n,  three  half-notes  in  a  bar.  2.  three  dotted  half-notes. 


86  GUroE  TO  MUSIC. 

It  will  serve  as  an  aid  in  committing  these  tables  to  memory 
if  it  is  pointed  out  that  all  times  where  2  is  the  top  figure  in 
the  signature  are  simple  duple;  all  times  where  4  is  the  top 
figure,  including  the  sign  $,  are  simple  quadruple;  and  all 
times  where  3  is  the  top  figure  are  simple  tnple.  All  times 
where  6  is  the  top  figure  in  the  signature  are  compound  duple; 
all  times  where  12  is  the  top  figure  are  compound  quadruple; 
and  all  times  where  9  is  the  top  figure  are  compound  triple. 


CHAPtER    V 
LIGHT  AND  SUADE  IN  MUSIC 

The  terms  "light"  and  "shade"  are  now  so  commonly  ap- 
plied to  music  that  they  seem  to  belong  quite  as  distinctly  to 
this  art  as  to  that  of  painting,  from  which  they  have  been  bor- 
rowed. 

The  musician,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  obtained, 
with  the  terms,  any  very  clear  musical  definition  of  them  in 
their  separate  senses.  Used  together  in  the  expression  "light 
and  shade,"  the  musician  is  clearly  understood  to  mean  the 
different  degrees  in  the  power  of  sound  —  the  loudness  and 
softness  of  tone.  Taken  separately,  the  meaning  does  not  so 
clearly  appear,  and,  in  answer  to  the  question,  "what  is  light 
in  music,  and  what  is  shade?"  would  eome  more  than  one  reply. 

The  answer,  "ligM  is  softness  of  sound,  and  shade  loudness," 
must  be  rejected,  since  it  is  based  upon  a  misconception  of  the 
sense  in  Avhich  the  painter  uses  the  terms,  and  the  interpreta- 
tion of  them  in  this  sense  would  serve  to  destroy  one  of  the 
pleasantest  analogies  between  the  arts. 

By  "light"  the  painter  means  intensity  of  brightness,  the 
illuminated  part  of  the  picture,  that  which  stands  out  and 
catches  the  eye.  In  music  the  term  should  be  used  in  the 
same  sense,  having  as  its  meaning  intensity  of  tone,  brightness 
of  effect,  the  prominent  parts  of  a  composition. 

"Shade"  is  to  the  artist  that  part  of  the  picture  in  W'hich 
objects  are  but  dimly  revealed,  the  soft  and  obscure  back- 
ground.    So  to  the  musician  the  term  should  imply  the  unob- 


LIGHT  AND  SUADK  IN   MUSIC.  37 

trusive  parts  of  a  composition,  distant  effects,  tones  which  are 
soft  and  subdued. 

As  light  and  shade  serve  more  fully  tlian  mere  outline  to 
suggest  form  in  drawing,  so  the  correspoiuHiig  effects  in  loud- 
ness and  softness  of  sound  serve  to  suggest  form  in  music. 

A  circle  in  outline  conveys  but  little  impression  of  shape ; 
shaded,  it  becomes  at  once  more  interesting  in  form. 


Fig.  18. 


Thus  by  increase  and  decrease  in  tone  power  music  is  re- 
lieved of  monotony;  and  even  single  notes,  which  svn;ll  out 
and  die  away  again,  become  "  round  "  and  interesting. 

The  most  important  work  carried  out  through  the  observance 
of  light  and  shade  is  that  of  making  clear  the  nieasure  of 
music  into  bars.  This  is  done  by  accents  which  arc  caused  to 
fall,  with  differing  degrees  of  power,  upon  the  beats,  or  divis- 
ions, of  tiie  bar. 

In  quadruple  time,  for  instance,  the  first  beat  in  each  bar  is 
the  loudest,  and  thus  the  beginning  of  the  bar  is  marked.  The 
third  beat  is  next  in  power  to  the  lirst,  and  thus  the  commence- 
ment of  the  half  bar  is  marked.  The  second  beat  is  soft,  and 
the  fourth  and  last  beat  softest  of  all. 

The  first  and  third  are  called  the  accented  beats,  and  the  sec- 
ond and  fourth  unaccented  beats. 

Duple  time  may  be  regarded  as  quadruple  time  in  miniature, 
since  the  two  beats  subdivide  into  four,  the  accents  upon 
which,  though  less  marked,  are  the  same  in  eilect  as  in  the 
time  described. 


427416 


38 


GUroE  TO  MUSIC. 


Triple  time  has  but  one  heavy  beat,  the  first ;  this  is  ac- 
cented, and  the  two  succeeding  beats  have  less  weight. 

In  compound  time  the  accerits  fall  in  the  corresponding 
parts  of  the  bar  to  those  of  simple  time ;  the  beats,  however, 
will  here  subdivide  into  three  notes  instead  of  two. 

No  Marks  for  Time  Accents. — These  natural  accents  are 
not  indicated  by  marks  of  any  kind,  and  the  power  with  which 
they  are  played  will  vary  as  the  composition  varies  in  loudness 
and  softness.  They  must  not  be  made  more  prominent  than 
is  necessary  to  reveal  the  time  of  the  music. 

Signs  to  denote  different  degrees  of  Tone  Povrer. — To 
indicate  different  degrees  of  tone  power,  changes  from  loud  to 
soft,  increase  and  decrease,  etc.,  the  following  letters,  standing 
for  Italian  words,  are  used : 


pp.  . 
p.     . 

mp.    . 
mf.    . 

.     pianissimo, 
.     piano,  .     . 
.     mszzo-piano, 
.    mezzo-forte. 

.     very  soft. 

.     soft. 

.     not  so  soft  as  piano. 

.     not  so  loud  as  forte. 

f.      . 

.     forte,    .     . 

.     loud. 

Jf.      . 

.     fortissimo, 

.     very  loud. 

Increase  of  tone  is  also  indicated  by  cresc.  (crescendo),  grad- 
ually increasing  in  tone  power.  Decrease  is  indicated  by  dim. 
{diminuendo),  decreasing  in  tone  power. 

By  lines  opening  thus, -==:Z,  increase  is  also  denoted,  and 
by  closing,  :iz==-,  decrease. 

Light  and  shade  may  therefore  be  represented  in  the  follow- 
ing ways : 


pp.  p:"mfrf:jf.    /."mp. pi    pp: 


n 


Fig.  19. 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE  IN  MUSIC. 


39 


Special  Accents. — Accents  in  unusual  parts  of  the  bar,  or 
notes  at  any  point  requiring  special  stress,  are  marked  as  in 
the  following  examples: 


Example  I. 

A 


Prologue,  "  Golden  heQenA," —Arthur  SuHtvan. 

A 


"^"^ 


J.     b^-  IbJ- 


^^=bJ-^      ^ 


Example  II. 


^ 


:iM 


^m 


Example  III.  /- 


P 


m 


In  Example  I.,  each  note  in  the  bar  is  to  be  heavily  marked; 
in  Example  II.,  the  note  commencing  the  second  half  of  the 
bar  is  to  be  more  heavily  marked  than  that  on  the  first  beat; 
and  in  Example  III.,  the  sf.  {.iforzando,  forcing  the  tone),  in- 
dicates that  the  note  commencing  this  bar  is  to  be  louder  than 
that  commencing  the  previous  bar,  or  any  other  bar  not  so 
marked.  These  are  all  departures  from  the  natural  accent, 
and  therefore  require  marking  in  this  special  way. 

Legato  (or  Slurs). — Slurs  are  interpreted  solely  through  the 
medium  of  light  and  shade,  and  by  a  careful  observance  of 
these  many  beautiful  effects  are  produced.  The  rendering  of 
these  on  the  piano  differs  of  necessity  from  that  upon  wind 
and  stringed  instruments,  and  demands  here  a  word  of  ex- 
planation. 

The  passage  from  one  note  to  another  when  marked  with  a 


. .        slur  is  to  be  stnooth.     As  previously  remarked, 

J^^     j"^— ^-^  a  singer  or  wind-instrument  player  would 

-i^J— — —  '  render  these  notes  with  one  sustained  tone,  a 

*^  violinist  with  one  smooth  movement  of  the 

bow,  thus  making  the  two  notes,  though  differing  in  pitch, 

into  one  sound. 


40 


OUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


But  as  upon  the  piano  Ibe  tone  begins  to  die  away  directly 
the  note  is  struck,  this  sustained  effect  is  impossible.  The 
feeling  of  smoothness  is,  however,  produced  by  playing  the 
second  note  softer  than  the  first.  Should  the  first  note  be  a 
short  one,  the  tone  not  having  time  to  die  away  very  much,  tlie 
second  note  need  not  be  played  much  softer  than  the  first. 
Should  the  first  note  be  a  long  one,  the  second  note  must  be 
very  soft  indeed.  The  aim  in  thus  rendering  slurs  upon  the 
piano  is  to  hide  the  blow  of  the  hammer  upon  the  second  note, 
and  this  is  satisfactorily  accomplished  when  the  second  note  is 
made  to  sound  only  as  loudly  as  the  previous  note  is  sounding 
when  it  is  left. 


Written— 


Played - 


/ 


^=^ 


mf 


^^ 


z.l^=^ 


m 


f  |-^    fr>f  mf 


P     f 


E^ 


"Where  three  or  more  notes  are  marked  with  a  slur  the  same 
method  of  treatment  may  be  adopted,  but  the  longer  the 
slurred  passage,  the  less  must  be  the  decrease  of  tone  upon  the 
succeeding  notes.     This  is  termed  a  legato  passage. 


Written— 


Played— 


mf 


^^i^^H^^ 


tTmfZ=^  P 


E^^ 


P- 


pp  f: 


11 


Wliere  an  opposite  effect  to  this  is  indicated  by  the  expres- 
sion marks,  as  by  increase  as  well  as  decrease  in  a  slurred  pas- 
sage, the  effect  of  smoothness  must  be  preserved  by  a  gliding 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE  IN  MUSIC. 


41 


Mezzo-Staccato. 


touch  (keeping  the  notes  close  together),  and  making  the 

changes  of  tone  as  gradual  as  possible. 

Staccato. — Notes  marked  with  dots,  either  above  or  be- 

•  •  •  •  neatli,  are  to  be  rendered  lightly, 

■0       |Jj^-prS^=F^^  with  a  detached  effect,  almost  the 

^     J    *^^pg       g=jr^^  opposite  of  a  slur.    This  is  termed 

%)  ....  jj^  staccato  passage. 

Notes  marked  y^xXh.^  dur  and  dots,  as  be- 
low, are  to  be  rendered  with 
equal  accent,  but  without  the 
extreme  detached  effect  of 
the  staccato.  This  is  termed 
mezzo  or  semi  -  staccato,  half- 
detached. 

8va. — Dots  or  waved  lines  {^-.^^  above  any  passage  indicate 
that  the  notes  as  far  as  the  dots  or  waved  lines  extend  are  to  be 
played  an  octave  higher  than  written. 


Beethoven,  Op.  14,  No.  I 


Phrasing. — Over  all  these  varied  touches  comcs  the  work  of 
phrasing — the  finishing  touch  in  light  and  shade,  by  which 
the  soul  and  meaning  of  a  composition  are  revealed.  A  phrase 
is  in  music  just  what  a  sentence  is  in  the  language  we  speak. 
As  by  a  number  of  words  in  succession  sentences  are  formt-d, 
so  by  a  number  of  notes  in  succession  musical  phrases  are 
formed — some  long,  some  short  and  fragmentary.  In  music 
which  is  set  to  words,  the  phrases  will  be  found,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  begin  and  end  willi  tlie  sentences.  In  instrumental, 
and  all  music  having  no  words,  a  phrase  is  such  a  succession 
of  notes  as  would  seem  to  be  speaking  a  sentence. 

Here  we  have  a  phrase,  and  tlie  sentence  to  which  it  is  sung: 


'Tis    the     last    rose       of       sum  -  me 


The  following  are  simple  instrumental  phrases,  culled  from 


42 


GUIDB  TO  MUSIC. 


various  sources,  each  of  which,  though  unset  to  words,  seems  to 
clearly  express  a  musical  thought: 


Beethoven,  Op.  79. 


f^j.f  f/r  rhi^^ 


Schumann,  Op.  21. 


P 


g^^^JsgEJES 


It  will  be  observed  in  these  examples  that  the  notes  in  each 
of  the  phrases  rise,  and  then  fall  again,  and  that  a  crescendo  has 
been  marked  where  they  rise,  and  a  decrescendo  where  they  fall. 

This  would  be  the  natural  way  of  phrasing  such  passages, 
whether  the  marks  of  expression  were  given  or  not.  And 
though  we  cannot  lay  down  a  rule  and  say  that  rise  and  fall 
in  the  notes  of  a  phrase  must  be  accompanied  by  increase  and 
decrease  in  the  tone  power,  we  can  safely  say  that  such  an  in- 
terpretation of  a  passage  which  rises  and  falls  is  more  likely 
to  be  correct  than  any  other.  Where  departures  from  this 
method  of  phrasing  are  desired,  they  will  be  indicated  by  ex- 
pression marks  in  the  composition. 

In  the  following  example  (an  air  of  Beethoven)  the  phrasing 
of  the  passages  is  very  fully  suggested  by  expression  marks, 
and  an  examination  of  the  phrases,  which  have  been  marked 
off  by  lines  above  them,  will  give  us  further  teaching  upon 
this  interesting  subject : 


LIGHT  AND   SHADE  IN  MUSIC.  4S 

Beethoven,  Op.  26. 


Of 


*P^ 


The  idea  of  increase  to  the  high  note  in  the  phrase  finds  con- 
stant expression  here.  In  phrase  1,  the  crescendo  at  bar  III. 
leads  up  to  the  Db,  bar  IV.,  which  is  the  highest  note  in  the 
phrase.  So  in  phrases  2,  3,  4,  7.  9,  and  10,  increase  is  made  to 
the  prominent  note,  after  which  we  liave  in  most  cases  a  de- 
crescendo  or  piano,  indicating  a  softening  down  of  the  phrase 
at  the  finish. 

Tills  is  the  "shading"  referred  to  at  the  commencement  of 
tills  chapter,  by  the  observance  of  which  phrases  are  made  in- 
teresting in  form. 


44  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

The  short  phrases  5  and  6  are  both  alike  in  form,  and  rise  to 
a  high  note  at  the  finish.  There  is  no  crescendo  mark  here, 
however,  and  tiie  slur  is  our  only  guide  to  the  correct  interpre- 
tation of  the  passage.     (Note  on  slurs,  page  39). 

In  phrases  7  and  8  will  be  found  an  interesting  departure 
from  the  ordinary  form  previously  described,  for  we  have 
crescendo  marks  throughout  the  two  phrases.  The  melody  is 
here  pressing  towards  some  object,  which  it  does  not  attain  in 
phrase  7,  nor  in  phrase  8,  and  the  continued  striving  after 
something  is  expressed  in  the  continued  increase  of  tone  right 
up  to  the  point  where  rest  is  found  in  the  return  to  the  pre- 
vious subject. 

From  a  study  of  the  foregoing  examples  the  student  may 
gather  a  sufficient  amount  of  information  to  enable  him  to  an- 
alyze other  compositions  for  himself.  An  increase  of  interest 
in  the  music  thus  studied,  as  well  as  a  clearer  view  of  its  mean- 
ing, will  follow  as  the  reward  of  his  pains. 

The  first  aim  should  be  to  discover  where  each  phrase  begins 
and  ends.  Then  study  what  may  be  called  their  pwnctnation  ; 
for  in  music,  as  in  literary  composition,  the  sense  may  be  very 
much  interfered  with  by  a  non-observance  of  the  stops.  These 
are  not  marked  for  us  in  music,  but  the  habit  of  mentally  ob- 
serving them  should  be  formed,  that  the  relation  of  the  phrases 
one  to  the  other  may  be  made  clear. 

The  manner  of  making  clear  i\\c  form  of  phrases  has  already 
been  pointed  out.  Countless  varieties  of  form  exist,  but  round- 
ness may  be  looked  for  in  all  as  a  chief  characteristic. 

In  the  highest  class  of  musical  composition  interesting  forms 
are  found  in  each  of  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed.  By  a 
careful  observance  of  light  and  shade  the  beauties  of  such 
music  are  made  apparent,  and  even  the  uninitiated  cannot  fail 
to  notice  its  charms. 

But  beneath  all  beauty  of  form  in  music,  to  be  felt  by  all 
who  have  been  endowed  with  true  musical  instinct,  is  the  liv- 
ing spirit  of  the  composer  himself,  though  the  boilily  presence 
may  be  lost  to  us  forever. 

To  feel  this  spirit  for  ourselves,  and  to  manifest  it  through 
our  playing  or  singing,  to  others,  demands  more  than  the  ob- 
servance of  light  and  shade,  or  obedience  to  mere  rules  of  any 
kind.     These  we  must  have,  for  although  they  do  not  reveal 


ORNAMENTATION  IN  MUSIC. 


45 


tbe  spirit  of  music,  they  are  the  medium  through  which  it 
makes  itself  felt.  They  are  tlie  body  in  which,  for  the  time,  it 
dwells — each  phrase  a  feature,  the  expression  of  wliich  tells 
of  the  life  witliin. 

Therefore,  study  light  and  shade,  as  the  artist  studies  the 
lighting  of  his  picture,  that  the  musical  story,  like  that  depicted 
upon  the  canvas,  may  lose  none  of  its  meaning. 


CHAPTER   VI 


ORNAMENTATION  IN  MUSIC 


The  means  of  embellishing  music  are  of  two  kinds— 1, 
Those  which  affect  its  tinu;  and  2.  Those  which  affect  its  no- 
tation. In  each  of  these  kinds  there  are  generally  accepted 
forms  of  which  a  definite  description  can  be  given. 

Pause. — First  among  these  we  may  mention  the  pause,  a 
sis^n  written  over  or  under  a  note  or  rest 


which  indicates  that  such  note  or  rest  is  pro- 
longed beyond  its  strict  time  value.  No 
fixed  length  is  allotted  to  the  pause  —  the  performer  must 
dwell  upon  the  note  or  rest  just  as  long  as  may  seem  in  keeping 
with  the  fancy  of  the  piece.  It  must,  however,  be  a  distinct 
break  in  the  time — a  sort  of  resting-place  in  the  composition. 

Tenuto. — Should  the  composer  wish  tiie  note  to  l>e  merely 
vvell  sustained,  but  not  prolonged  beyond  its       ten.     ten. 

value,  the  mark  ten.  (an  abl)reviation   of  \i~-f^ ^ 

tenuto,  "lield,")  would  be  given,  instead  of 


^ 


the  pause ;  or  tiie  note  would  have  a  straight        —       — 
line  above  or  boneatli  it,  Aviiich  means  that  ~ 

such  notes  are  to  be  fully  sustained 


-4:^ 


Triplets. — A  pleasant  change  of  rhythm  is  obtained  in  music 
by  the  introduction  of  three  notes  to  the  time  of  two.  Over 
such  three  notes  a  figure  three  is  placed: 


46 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Such  groups  of  three  notes  are  called  triplets.  They  may  be 
introduced  in  some  compositions  upon  occasional  beats  only, 
or  in  others  tliroughout  a  prolonged  passage.  In  Mendelssohn's 
Lied  ohne  Worte,  No.  20,  they  occur  either  in  the  treble  or  the 
bass  part  of  almost  every  bar,  and  in  such  compositions,  when 
the  player  can  render  the  triplets  of  one  part,  and  the  even 
notes  of  the  other,  each  with  their  proper  time  value,  a  very 
charming  effect  is  produced. 

Arpeggio. — A  pleasing  and  ornamental  method  of  playing 
chords  is  that  which  is  termed  arpeggio,  meaning  "in  a  harp- 
like" manner.  This  is  indicated  by  a  waved  line  before  the 
chords,  and  the  notes  of  such  chords  are 
played,  not  together,  but  rapidly  one  after 


^_!#i     I  piayc  _  _      . 

l3^^<a=q  the  other,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest. 

"*  This  manner  of  playing  chords  is  common 

^^  upon  the  harp,  the  fingers  of  the  player 
|)a      I  plucking  the  strings  rapidly  one  after  the 


other  from  the  bottom  note  to  the  top,  and 
'  '  it  is  this  style  of  playing  which  the  per- 
former must  imitate  when  chords  are  marked  as  described. 
These  are  usually  called  spread  cliords. 

Syncopation. — By  displacing  the  natural  accent  in  a  com- 
position, binding  the  last  note  of  a  bar  to  the  first  note  of  the 
next,  thus  prolonging  a  note  beyond  its  expected  length,  and 
causing  the  part  to  fall  for  a  time  a  beat  behind,  another 
pleasing  change  of  rhythm  is  effected.  This  is  called  syruio- 
pation,  and  an  example,  iu  very  simple  form,  is  appended  : 


Mozart,  Sonata  No.  5. 


Syncopation  in  its  more  elaborate  forms  may  more  fitly  be 
studied  when  the  whole  subject  of  composition  is  taken  up. 


ORNAMENTATION  IN  MUSIC. 


41 


Turn.— First  among  note  ornamentations  must  be  placed 
the  turn,  since  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  frequently  used,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  most  graceful  in  effect,  of  all  embellish- 
ments. 

The  notes  of  a  turn  are  not  usually  written ;  signs  are  em- 
ployed which  save  this  trouble,  while  they  indicate  quite 
clearly  the  notes  desired. 

A  curved  line  ~  is  the  sign  for  a  turn,  and  the  course  of  this 
line  shows  the  course  of  the  notes  of  which  the  turn  is  com- 


posed.   For  instance,  a  turn  thus,  '    T    f  ^  ^^  rendered  in 


the  following  manner : 


The  small  notes 


here  given  show  the  turn,  which  in  its  movement  follows  the 
shape  of  the  sign. 

The  notes  of  the  turn,  unless  otherwise  marked,  must  always 
be  the  notes  of  llie  scale  in  which  the  piece  is  written. 

Chromatic  alterations  of  the  notes  of  a  turn  are  indicated  in 
the  following  manner  :  An  accidental  above  the  sign  ^  ^  ^, 
means  that  the  upper  note  is  to  be  made  flat,  sharp,  or  natural ; 
an  accidental  below  the  sign  'f  '^  "^  means  that  the  lotcer  note 
is  to  be  similarly  altered. 

The  following  are  examples  of  turns  thus  chromatically 
altered,  the  small  notes  showing  how  they  should  be  played: 


^rp-^^^ 


The  time  of  the  four  notes  of  the  turn  is  taken  from  the 
written  note  tliat  precedes  them.  The  pace  at  which  they  are 
played  will  vary  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  piece  and  the 
taste  of  the  performer.  In  slow  pieces  they  will  naturally  be 
taken  in  a  smooth  and  measured  style;  in  quick  pieces  in  a 
brisk  and  spirited  manner. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  turn,  so  far  considered,  has  been 


48 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


between  two  notes,  and  that  it  figures  as  an  ornamental  passage 
from  one  note  to  the  other. 

Turn  over  a  Note. — The  sign  will  frequently  be  found 
written  over  a  note  thus: 

Mozart,  Sonata  No.  9. 


the  rendering  of  which  passage  would  be  as  follows: 


the  difference  being  that  in  this  case  the  note  written  is 
omitted  at  the  beginning  of  the  turn.  Wherever  this  form  of 
the  turn  is  desired,  the  sign  is,  or  should  be,  wiitten  over  the 
note,  as  in  the  example  given. 

Shake. — A  shake,  written  tr  (the  first  two  letters  of  trillo), 
consists  of  the  first  two  notes  of  the  turn — i.e.,  the  note  written 
and  the  note  above,  rapidly  repeated  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  tlic  note  over  Avhich  the  sign  is  ])laced.  Its  con- 
tinuance is  generally  indicated  by  a  waved  line,  thus: 


Written— 


Played— 


The  two  little  notes,  written  after  the  half-note,  and  played  at 
the  end  of  the  shake,  make  its  notes  tiiose  of  a  complete  turn ; 
and  this,  in  fact,  a  shake  very  frequently  is,  with  the  repetition 
of  the  first  two  notes  as  described. 

The  small  notes  that  end  the  shake  are  not  always  written, 
but  the}'  may  consistently  be  played,  excepting  when  the  next 
note  written  is  the  same  as  the  note  on  Avhich  the  shake  oc- 
curred, or  when  it  is  the  next  note  below  it. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  omit  them  when  the  passage  in  wliich 


ORNAMENTATION   IN  MUSIC. 


49 


the  shake  occurs  is  a  rapid  one,  and  the  shake-note  one  of  short 
duration. 
An  accidental  over  the  sign  f^  ^^  ^  means  that  the  note  used 

in  the  shake  with  the  written  note  is  sharp,  flat,  or  natural,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

Mordente. — The  embellishment  known  as  the  Mordente, 
written,  also  consists  of  the  first  two  notes  of  the  turn,  but  of 
these  only. 


The  passage  here  given  would,  according  to  general  rule,  be 
played  in  the  following  manner, 


the  accent  falling  upon  the  first  note  of  the  group.  Oilier  in- 
terpretations in  regard  to  the  time  of  playing  such  notes  may 
sometimes  be  given  with  equal  correctness.  The  two  little 
notes  may,  for  instance,  be  plaj-ed  before  the  written  note  as  if 
written : 


^^1 


There  being  no  distinctive  sign  to  indicate  that  the  time  of 
the  written  note  is  not  to  be  interfered  with  by  the  embellisii- 
ment,  the  composer  must,  to  make  his  intention  clear,  write  the 
notes  out  in  full  when  he  desires  the  mordente  to  precede  the 
written  note.  But  composers  have  certainly  not  always  done 
this,  and  performers  are  frequently  left  to  the  exercise  of  their 
own  judgment,  or  their  knowledge  of  the  traditional  rendering 
of  the  piece  in  interpreting  these  fanciful  touches  in  the  works 
of  many  of  the  great  masters. 

Inverted  Turn. — The  turn  and  the  mordente  may  both 
be  inverted,  though  they  are  but  seldom  used  in  this'  form. 

I 


An    inverted    turn,  written    irrp-— p=    would    be    played 

4  ~ 


60  GUIDE   TO   MUSIC. 

the  uotes  being  tlie  same  as  ihe  ordi- 
nary turn,  but  differing  in  tlieir  order, 
the  note  below  the  written  note  being 
played  first. 
Inverted  Mordente. — The  inverted  mordente  is  written — 


and  played,  F=CL^ 


^ 


the  note  below   the 


written  note,  as  in  the  inverted  turn,  taking  the  place  of  the 
one  above. 

Many  other  forms  of  ornamentation  have  been  devised  by 
modern  composers — the  genius  of  Chopin,  for  example,  having 
given  us,  in  his  pianoforte  works,  a  most  wonderful  variety. 
These,  however,  are  all  indicated  by  small  notes,  and  the 
method  of  interpreting  them  will  need  no  explanation  here. 

All  ornamental  touches,  peculiar  to  a  particular  instrument 
or  to  the  voice,  such  as  the  poi'tamento — i.e.,  sliding  from  note 
to  note;  the  tremolo — i.e.,  rapid  reiterations  of  a  note;  ihe  pedal 
effects  of  the  pianoforte,  etc.,  though  they  might  properly  have 
a  place  here,  must  be  left  over  for  consideration  when  other 
subjects,  upon  which  they  bear  more  closely,  are  before  us. 


CHAPTER   VII 
ON  SINGING 

A  CONTROL  of  the  voice  in  singing  is  generally  the  earliest 
indication  of  the  possession  of  a  musical  nature.  Infants 
under  two  years  of  age  may  often  be  heard  singing  simple 
melodies  quite  correctly  in  time  and  tune,  showing  a  true  ear, 
and  a  control  of  the  vocal  organ  which  is  really  wonderful. 

It  is  as  natural  to  many  children  to  sing  as  to  laugh,  and 
with  careful  training  and  good  example  almost  all  would 
grow  up  well  able  to  make  satisfactory  use  of  their  voices. 

In  the  early  voice  training  of  children  the  practice  of  deal- 
ing with  them  collectively  rather  than  individually  is  a  mis- 
take. Class  singing,  while  an  excellent  thing  in  itself,  is  not 
all  that  is  needed  in  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  delicate 
vocal  organ. 


ON  SINGING.  61 

If  iu  our  schools  five  minutes'  individual  training  took  the 
place  every  now  and  again  of  the  half-hour's  class  practice, 
the  pupils  would  benefit  immensely.  Every  child  should  be 
taught  to  sing  alone,  that  the  faults  of  style  and  production 
which  flourish  unobserved  in  the  class  may  be  corrected  before 
they  become  fixed  habit. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing,  as  every  professor  of  singing 
knows,  for  young  people,  upon  taking  their  first  lessons  in 
"solo"  singing,  to  have  to  undo  the  practice  of  years  before 
they  can  make  any  start  at  all  on  a  right  course.  There  is  a 
fear  of  hearing  one's  own  voice  which  ought  never  to  exist. 
In  some  it  is  an  absolute  bar  to  all  progress  in  vocalization, 
robbing  the  voice  of  purity  and  power,  and  making  the  prac- 
tice of  singing  within  hearing  of  others  a  pain  rather  than  a 
pleasure. 

Let  every  child  who  has  the  singing  voice  be  encouraged  to 
use  it  often  enough  to  become  accustomed  to  its  sound,  and  ac- 
customed also  to  the  sensation  of  letting  other  people  hear  it. 

The  nature  of  the  faults  to  be  looked  for  and  weeded  out  is 
pretty  much  the  same  in  youthful  voices  as  in  those  which  are 
mature.  We  need  not,  therefore,  treat  specially  of  the  child 
voice,  but  pass  on  to  consider  it  in  its  "  settled  "  state. 

The  "settling"  of  the  voice  follows  upon  the  period  known 
as  the  time  of  the  "breaking"  of  the  voice,  during  which  time 
singing  should  cease. 

The  term  "breaking"  is  more  commonly  applied  to  boys' 
voices  than  to  girls',  since  it  has  reference  to  a  break  in  the 
sound  of  the  voice,  and  this  is  more  apparent  in  the  one  than 
the  other.  A  similar  change  of  voice  occurs  in  both  sexes, 
however,  and  is  due  to  a  somewhat  sudden  enlargement  of  the 
larynx,  taking  place  at  the  age  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen, 
sometimes  even  later,  and  sometimes  earlier.  In  boys  the 
change  usually  causes  a  considerable  deepening  of  the  tone,  and 
an  octave  or  more  of  high  notes  goes  from  the  voice  entirely. 
In  girls,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  change  is  more  a  kugthcning 
of  the  larynx  than  a  broadening  of  it,  the  voice  does  not  alter 
much  iu  pitch,  though  during  the  process  of  change  a  loss  of 
control  and  power  is  noticeable  in  the  high  notes ;  this,  how- 
ever, gradually  returns  with  judicious  practice.  As  soon  as 
the  voice  becomes  fairly  manageable  again  after  breaking,  its 


62 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


natural  compass  should  be  ascertained  by  careful  scale  exercise, 
taking  all  notes  both  high  and  low  that  are  within  easy  reach. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  matters  of  voice  training,  it  is  impos- 
sible for  one  to  do  so  well  alone  as  with  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
The  hints  here  given  may,  however,  render  service  to  those 
wishing  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  voice  they  possess. 

First  in  importance  in  the  practice  of  singing  is  the  manage- 
ment of  the  lungs,  and  attention  should,  at  the  very  beginning, 
be  given  to  this  exercise,  which  is  the  foundation  of  vocaliza- 
tion. 

Management   of  the  Lungs.  —  The    quantity   of   breath 
usually  held  in  the  lungs,  wliile  sufficient  for  ordinary  speech, 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the  vocal  organ  in  singing. 
We  must,  therefore,  endeavor  to  increase 
the  storage  of  air  within  tiie  chest,  and 
become,  at  the  same  time,  so  accustomed 
to  the  greater  expansion  of  the  lungs  that 
we  can  still  breathe  quite  steadily. 

Position. — Position  will  have  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  our  accomplishing  this; 
therefore  the  familiar  advice  must  here 
be  given:  Stand  upriglit  when  singing, 
the  head  and  shoulders  being  thrown 
well  back,  and  tlie  cliest  and  lower  part 
of  the  body  expanded  and  well  forward. 

The  object  of  ti)rowing  the  head  and 
shoulders  well  back  is  to  lift  the  weight 
of  these  parts  off  tlie  lungs,  which  will 
at  once  expand  of  their  own  accord  to 
nearly  double  their  ordinar}'  size,  giving 
an  equivalent  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
breath  within  them. 

The  pushing  of  the  lower  parts  of  the 
body  outward  must  be  understood  as 
implying  (in  enlarging  or  crjMnding  of 
tliene  parts  by  a  physical  movement, 
which,  with  a  little  practice,  can  be  per- 
formed as  easily  and  as  rapidly  as  that  of  opening  the  hand. 
The  increased  space  within  the  body  which  this  movement 
produces  is  at  once  of  benefit  to  the  lungs  above,  which  swell 


Fig.  20. 


ON  8IKGING.  53 

out  and  fill  whatever  room  we  may  thus  make  for  them,  pro- 
viding;^ breatli  sufficient  for  tlie  singer's  every  need. 

A  Full  Breath. — The  process  of  drawing  in  breath  through 
the  mouth  and  nostrils  by  what  is  called  a  deep  inspiration 
will  be  seen  to  be  not  only  slow  and  tedious,  but  absolutely 
wrong  for  the  purpose  of  vocalization.  The  incoming  breath 
in  this  case  has  to  lift  oflf  or  drive  away  all  the  surrounding 
and  obstructing  parts  of  the  body  before  the  lungs  can  fill,  re- 
quiring an  expenditure  of  time  and  strength  which  the  singer 
cannot  give. 

In  the  process  previously  described,  the  one  movement  which 
the  singer  need  be  careful  to  perform  is  the  throwing  of  the 
head  and  shoulders  back,  and  the  expanding  or  pushing  out- 
ward of  the  lower  part  of  the  body.  A  full  breath  is  by  this 
method  obtained  instantly. 

The  proof  that  the  action  is  correctly  performed  will  be 
found  in  the  sound  of  in-rusliing  air  which  will  be  heard  as 
the  lungs  expand  to  till  the  space  made  for  them. 

Retaining  the  Breath. — Having  obtained  the  full  breath 
by  this  rapid  and  easy  process,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bestow 
some  pains  upon  the  practice  of  liokUng  it.  Let  the  body  be 
held  in  the  attitude  described  for  a  few  seconds  only  at  fii-st, 
gradually  increasing  the  time  with  daily  practice,  until  the 
muscles  have  become  so  accustomed  to  their  work  that  the 
strain  imposed  upon  them  is  no  longer  noticeable.  The  storage 
of  air  williiu  tlie  lungs  will  tluis  become  considerably  increased, 
and  it  will  be  found  possible  to  sing  a  short  exercise  such  as 
this  many  limes  over  with  one  breath: 


This  work  of  laying  a  foundation  upon  which  the  voice  is  af- 
terwards to  be  built  up  cannot  be  hurried,  and  a  good  many 
weeks  may  profitably  be  spent  upon  it  before  attention  is 
turned  to  tlie  voice  itself. 

Assuming  this  to  have  been  done,  we  can  pass  on  to  the  very 
interesting  study  of  voice  production,  under  which  head  must 


64  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

be  considered  all  matters  having  relation  to  the  quality  of  tone 
produced. 

Voice  Production. — However  much  Nature  may  have  done 
for  us  at  the  start,  it.  is  well  that  every  one  who  wishes  to  be- 
come a  finished  singer  should  be  willing  still  to  listen  and 
learn.  Humility  may  be  the  principal  cliaracteristic  of  singers 
in  general  the  world  over;  we  do  not  say  it  is  not.  At  any 
rate,  those  who  know  how  much  there  is  to  learn  before  per- 
fection is  attained  in  the  art  of  vocalism  will  recognize  the 
absolute  necessity  of  this  quality  in  the  beginner.  We  may 
naturally  have  a  clear  voice  and  an  easy  production,  but  it 
does  not  follow  that  we  know  how  to  sing.  Until  some  power 
bestows  upon  us  the  gift  to  liear  ourselves  as  others  hear  us  we 
cannot  be  the  judges  of  our  own  voices,  nor  of  our  own  style 
in  singing. 

Roundness  of  Tone. — The  chief  feature  of  vocal  tone,  like 
that  of  all  wind  instruments  which  imitate  the  human  voice, 
should  be  roundness.  The  eye  must  tell  the  ear  what  is  meant 
by  this.  The  channel  through  which  sound  passes  in  the  flute, 
oboe,  clarionet,  bassoon,  horn,  trumpet,  trombone,  and  all  sim- 
ilar instruments,  is  perfectly  round.  The  eye  perceives  this,  and 
the  ear,  in  its  own  way,  perceives  it,  too,  by  the  quality  of  the 
sound  produced.  In  the  king  of  instruments,  the  organ,  which 
combines  in  itself  the  qualities  of  all  the  instruments  just  men- 
tioned, the  metal  pipes  are  all  perfectly  round,  and  where  these 
are  properly  voiced  the  tone  is  pure  and  sweet.  The  wood 
pipes,  it  is  true,  are  square,  but  their  tone  is  easily  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  round  metal  pipes,  from  which  the  grandest 
and  noblest  tones  are  invariably  obtained.  Roundness  in  the 
channel  through  which  it  passes,  and  from  which  it  is  given 
out,  undoubtedly  imparts  to  sound  a  richness  and  smoothness 
of  quality.  Destroy  the  roundness  of  the  organ  pipe  by  bend- 
ing or  twisting,  and  just  as  the  eye  sees  a  disfigurement  on  the 
surface  of  the  pipe,  so  the  ear  hears  a  disturbance  in  the  quality 
of  the  tone. 

Roundness  in  the  pipe  of  the  vocal  organ  is  as  necessary  to 
the  production  of  good  tone  as  we  find  it  to  be  in  other  instru- 
ments, and  the  following  hints  may  serve  to  show  what  is  to 
be  attained  in  this  direction. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  the  singer  is  at  present  using  only 


ON  SINGING.  55 

the  vowel  a,  sounded  as  in  Amen  when  sung,  or  as  in  father 
wlien  spoken. 

The  position  of  llie  liead  recommended  in  the  liints  upon 
breatliing  is  also  favorable  to  the  production  of  roundness  of 
tone  in  singing.  Sliould  the  head  be  drawn  down  so  as  to 
press  upon  the  throat,  or  allowed  to  drop  forward  upon  the 
chest,  the  openness  or  roundness  of  the  sound  passage  will  be 
interfered  with.  Therefore,  let  the  liead  be  held  icell  up, 
taking  care,  at  the  same  time,  to  do  this  in  a  manner  which  is 
free  from  any  approacii  to  stiffness. 

Opening  the  Mouth. — To  say  that  openness  of  mouth  is 
necessary  to  the  production  of  good  tone  is  but  to  repeat  what 
has  been  said  so  often  that  there  is  a  danger  of  the  remark 
being  unheeded.  Those  who  sing  believe  that  they  always  do 
open  the  mouth,  and  think  the  advice  in  their  case  altogether 
superfluous.  A  test  would  prove  whether  this  is  so  or  not,  and 
every  one  should  be  willing  to  apply  it. 

A  mirror  will  tell  us,  in  the  first  place,  if  we  open  our  mouth 
or  not  in  singing.  But  we  must  learn  to  open  it  when  the  mir- 
ror is  not  before  us,  or  we  shall  not  have  gained  much  by  this 
test.  Let  a  measure  of  the  distance  between  the  front  teeth 
be  taken  while  singing,  mcay  from  the  mirror,  and  we  may 
find  ourselves  somewhat  deceived  as  to  the  openness  of  our 
mouth.  When  the  lips  are  parted  at  all,  we  cannot,  without 
measuring,  or  seeing  their  reflection  in  the  glass,  determine  the 
exact  distance  they  are  apart.  Thus  it  is  that  so  many  think 
they  are  giving  their  tone  ample  room  when  the  passage  be- 
tween the  teetli  through  which  the  voice  is  being  squeezed 
would  not  admit,  perhaps,  the  end  of  an  ordinary  lead-pencil. 

Let  the  mouth  be  opened  in  an  easy,  natural  way.  Stiffness 
of  movement  will  be  fatal  to  clear  enunciation,  for  while 
roundness  is  to  he  the  chief  characteristic,  remember  that  the 
mouth  is  a  mould  which  should  be  constantly  changing  in 
shape  with  everj^  change  of  vowel  tone  to  be  sung. 

The  lower  jaw  Khould  be  allowed  to  drop  precisely  as  it 
would  in  sleep  if  unsupported;  or,  as  some  prefer  to  put  it, 
just  as  it  does  in  the  act  of  yawning.  At  the  same  time  the 
muscles  which  govern  its  movement  must  be  under  perfect 
control,  or  again  enunciation  would  be  interfered  with,  though 
in  a  dijierent  way. 


66  GUroE  TO  MUSIC. 

Position  of  the  Tongue. —It  is  quite  possible  for  the 
mouth  to  be  well  open  in  the  manner  described,  and  yet  for 
the  passage  from  the  throat,  through  the  vwuth,  to  be  unsatis- 
factory. The  tongue  is  here  the  common  cause  of  hinderance 
to  the  sound.  This  must  be  kept  well  dmcn  and  foi'ward,  so 
that  when  singing  the  open  vowel  a  it  is  possible  with  a  mir- 
ror to  see  into  the  throat  passage  at  the  back  of  the  mouth. 
Anj'thing  which  prevents  our  thus  seeing  freely  into  the 
throat  will  also  prevent  the  sound  from  coming  out  of  it. 

Nasal  Tone. — When  any  obstruction  is  offered  to  the  voice 
by  the  tongue,  or  when  the  passage  from  the  throat  into  the 
mouth  is  not  properly  opened,  the  tone  becomes  nasal  in  qual- 
ity. To  test  the  voice  in  this  lespect,  let  the  same  open  vowel 
be  sung  while  the  nostrils  are  closed  and  opened  by  a  succes- 
sion of  pinches  from  the  thumb  and  finger  of  one  hand.  If 
we  find  that  the  closing  of  the  nostrils  shuts  off  some  part  of 
our  tone,  the  voice  is  not  free  from  this  nasal  defect.  If  the 
tone  remains  the  same  in  power  and  quality  (as  it  should  do), 
being  quite  unaffected  by  the  alternate  closing  and  unclosing 
of  the  nostrils,  we  then  know  our  production  to  be  right  in 
this  particular  respect. 

Breathy  Tone. — A  thick,  cloudy  tone  is  the  result  of  breath 
escaping  too  freely  through  the  larj^nx,  only  a  part  of  the 
breath  being  converted  into  tone.  In  this  case  too  wide  a  pas- 
sage is  allowed  between  the  vocal  chords,  and  that  part  of  the 
air  passing  midway  between  tiiem  is  not  affected,  as  it  should 
be,  by  their  vibration.  To  remedy  this  defect,  begin  by  singing 
the  softest  sound  it  is  possible  to  produce.  No  breath  must  be 
allowed  to  pass  into  the  moutii  until  it  has  been  converted  into 
pure  tone.  In  other  words,  this  soft  sound  must  be  sung,  not 
uhispered. 

A  Light  a  Test  of  Purity. — Should  a  test  be  necessary  here 
to  satisfy  us  that  our  tone  is  pure,  let  a  lighted  wax  match  or 
taper  be  held  close  in  front  of  the  mouth  while  singing  the 
open  sound  as  before.  A  pure  tone  will  not  disturb  its  flame 
in  the  least ;  a  breathy  tone  will  blow  it  out.  The  practice  of 
thus  singing  with  a  tone  which  is  free  from  all  breathiness 
must  be  continued  with  gradually  increasing  power  of  voice, 
until  the  light  test  can  be  applied  successfully  to  our  loudest  as 
to  our  softest  notes. 


ON  SINGING.  57 

Intonation. — Having  obtained  the  roundest,  sweetest,  purest 
tone  possible,  we  must  noAV  see  to  it  that  our  intonation  is  true. 
By  true  intonation  is  meant  perfect  agreement  in  pitcli  wiili 
the  accompanying  instrument,  also  tiie  correct  taking  of  inter- 
vals in  passing  from  one  note  to  anotlier. 

In  many  instruments  the  notes  are  tuned  already  for  use.  We 
touch  the  key,  and  thus  obtain  the  sound,  the  pitch  of  which 
we  have  done  nothing  and  can  do  nothing  to  control.  In  in- 
struments, however,  of  the  string  class,  played  with  a  bow,  the 
performer  controls  the  pitch  of  the  notes  almost  entirely. 
For  all  sounds,  excepting  the  four  open  notes  of  the  violin, 
the  player  must  touch  the  string  at  such  a  point  as  will 
give  exactly  the  pitch  required ;  the  linger  being  too  high 
up  on  the  finger-board,  the  note  is  sharp;  too  low  down,  it  is 
flat. 

Tension  of  Vocal  Chords. — In  a  similar  though  much  more 
subtle  and  wonderful  manner  the  singer  controls  the  pitch  of 
the  tones  of  the  vocal  organ.  By  the  exercise  of  the  will  upon 
them,  guided  by  a  musical  intellect,  the  vocal  chords  can  be 
made  to  change  in  tension  and  length,  and  consequently  in 
rapidity  of  vibration.  A  low  sound  being  required,  the  vocal 
chords  will  be  held  at  their  loosest  tension  and  greatest  length, 
and  the  vibration  being  comparatively  slow,  the  tone  will  be 
low  in  pitch.  For  a  high  sound  the  vocal  chords  will  be  in- 
creased in  tension  and  shortened  in  length ;  their  vibration  will 
then  be  rapid  and  the  tone  high  in  pilch.  But  not  only  have 
we  the  power  of  changing  the  length  of  the  vocal  chords,  we 
can  change  also  their  degree  of  looseness  or  firmness  of  tissue, 
by  wiiich  means  the  compass  of  the  singing  voice  is  wonder- 
fully extended. 

Compass  of  Male  Voices. — By  the  exercise  of  this  power  in 
one  direction  a  bass  singer  can  prcxluce  from  his  vocal  chord.**, 
which  oidy  measure,  perhaps,  an  inch  in  length,  such  a  deep 
tone  as  in  the  organ  would  be  obtained  from  an  open  pipe 
eight  feet  long!    The  rate  of  the  vibrations  which  generate  the 


sound  written 


would,  at  a  medium  pitch,  be  sixty- 


six  in  one  second  of  time.    English  concert  pitch  is  higher  than 


58 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


this,  the  Philharmonic 


f 


being  454  vibrations  in  a 


second.     In  all  the  following  quotations  we  shall  take  the 


International  pitch,  435-A  ^:== 


as  our  standard.     Upon 


the  grand  pianoforte  the  string  which  produces  the  low  C  just 
quoted  is  usually  over  four  feet  in  length.  By  a  loosening  of 
the  vocal  chords  the  singer  can  make  them,  short  as  they  are, 
vibrate  as  slowly  as  this  long,  heavy  string  of  the  piano. 

With  the  ascending  scale  the  rapidity  of  vibration  increases, 
doubling  exactly  with  every  octave.    When  the  voice  gives 

the  vocal  chords  are  vibralins;  ex- 


forth  this  note,  R 


actly  132  times  in  a  second.  In  a  scale  upon  the  organ  which 
started  with  a  pipe  eight  feet  long,  this  note  would  be  produced 
by  otie  four  feet  long.  Upon  the  piano  the  string  which  sounds 
this  note  is  not  reduced  to  half  the  length  of  the  lower  C ;  a 
lighter  wire  is  used,  and  a  quicker  vibration  is  thereby  obtained. 
We  shall  discover,  however,  that  the  natural  result  of  shorten- 
ing a  string  by  half  is  to  cause  it  to  sound  a  note  exactly  an 
octave  above  the  note  produced  by  the  whole  string. 
When  we  have  ascended  another  octave,  and  have  reached 

the  vibrations  of  which  are  264  in 


the  note  written 


a  second,  we  still  have  not  reached  the  limit  in  higher  sounds 
of  an  ordinary  bass  voice,  while  the  tenor  voice,  which  has 
not  the  deep  notes  of  the  bass,  will  reach  upward  as  high  as 


^iz:,  the  vibrations  being  435  in  a  second. 


the  note 

Compass  of  Female  Voices,— The  ordinary  compass  of  con- 
tralto voices  is  from  the  note  LEJ r:z3,  with  176  vibrations 

I — (r ?"^        I  - 

in  a  second, to 


i 


,  with  616  vibrations  in  a  second; 


ON  SINGING.  59 

the  still  lighter  organ  of  sopranos  having^  a  range  usually 
from 


,  264  vibrations,  to 


|i 


,  in   sounding 


which  note  the  vocal  chords  vibrate  at  the  rate  of  1056  beata 
in  a  second. 

Compass  of  Exceptional  Voices. — Lower  sounds  than 
those  quoted  are  often  produced  by  the  human  voice.  An 
exceptionally  low  note  for  a  bass  would  be    'J^ 


m 


notes  as 


,  while  high  sopranos  sometimes  reach  such  extreme 


,  the  last  note  having  over 


2000  vibrations  in  a  second! 

The  method,  now  generally  adopted,  of  showing  the  partic- 
ular octave  in  which  a  sound  occurs,  is  as  follows  : 


IC      tO'tavei  (Small  Octave.)    (Once-accented  Sve.)    (Twice-acc.  8ve.)  etc, 


The  pitch  of  organ  pipes  is,  however,  still  named  after  the 
old  system,  as  follows  : 


i^  (Sve.  lower. ) 

CCC, 
(or)      16  ft.  0, 
(or)    Three  C's. 


c, 

2  ft.  c, 

Middle  c. 


m 


8  ft.  0, 
Double  C. 


cc, 

1  ft.  c, 

Treble  C. 


m 


C, 

4  ft  C, 

Tenor  C. 


I 


cec, 

0  inches  c, 

c  in  ait. 


60  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

The  octave  below  CCC  being  CCCC,  ami  tliat  above  c  in  alt, 
c  in  altissimo — cccc.     Some  liieorists  use  iCgC  and  c'c',  etc. 

From  these  rcraiirks  it  will  be  seen  tliat  intonation  is  not  a 
thing  to  be  lightly  guessed  at.  Perfection  in  this  matter  must 
be  sought  for  in  an  earnest  and  painstaking  manner.  By 
practice  the  control  of  the  vocal  chords  can  be  wonderfully 
increased,  enabling  the  singer  to  add  many  a  charm  to  the 
singing  of  a  simple  ballad. 

Portamento. — It  is  possible,  with  good  effect  in  singing,  to 
slide  from  one  note  to  another — that  is,  to  continue  singing 
while  the  pitch  of  the  lower  sound  is  raised  to  that  of  the 
higher,  or  vice  versa,  the  voice  covering  all  sound  lying  between 
the  two  notes. 

This  style  of  singing,  called  portamento,  is  an  ornament  when 
in  its  proper  place,  but  is  the  most  abominable  of  all  disfigure- 
ments when  employed  injudiciously. 

It  should  be  used  only  in  music  of  the  smoothest  style,  and 
the  following  two  suggestions  remembered  whenever  it  is  em- 
ployed: 

1.  Let  tceight  be  taken  off  the  voice  during  its  passage  from  one 
sound  to  the  other,  that  the  intermediate  sounds  be  not  so promineiit 
as  t/iose  at  the  start  and  finish. 

2.  Pass  quickly  from  one  sound  to  the  other,  tliat  the  ear  may 
not  have  time  to  dwell  vpo7i  any  sound  of  ichich  the  slide  is  formed. 
Or,  in  other  words,  do  not  begin  to  slide  aicay  from  the  first  note 
tintil  it  is  time  to  sing  the  second. 

Attack. — At  the  very  commencement  of  a  sound,  see  that  it 
is  true  in  pitch.  It  is  possible  to  tune  the  vocal  chords  by  a 
mental  process,  having  them  quite  ready  to  give  forth  the  de- 
sired sound  before  we  send  up  breath  to  start  it.  A  common 
fault  in  singing  is  that  of  tuning  the  voice  after  the  note  is 
sounded.  The  start  is  made  upon  some  low  note,  and  the  voice 
is  Immediately  screwed  up  to  the  pitch  required,  which  proc- 
ess is  repeated  more  or  less  upon  all  the  sounds  sung.  This 
is  a  case  of  the  slide  being  very  much  out  of  place,  and  wherever 
a  trace  of  such  a  fault  is  found,  the  greatest  pains  should  be 
taken  to  remove  it. 

To  attack  notes  with  true  intonation — that  is,  to  make  the 
pitch  correct  from  the  beginning  of  the  sound — should  be  the 
aim  of  every  singer.     If,  upon  examination,  we  find  ourselves 


ON   SINGING.  61 

addicted  to  the  habit  of  tuning  tJie  xoice  up  to  the  required 
sound  after  comnuncing  to  sing  the  note,  exercises  of  the  fol- 
lowing nature  should  be  practised: 

I'P  ___,. s      .     „ 


=e — r-^:j^i=^^M^^^==i= 


ah,  ah,  ah,  ah. 

These  notes  must  be  very  short,  and  should  be  sung  as  ?oftly 
as  possible,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  are  lightly  touched 
upon  the  piano. 

As  soon  as  these  notes  can  be  sung  with  perfect  ease,  the 
pitch  of  each  being  found  to  agree  with  the  note  upon  tlie 
piano,  tlie  exercise  may  be  sung  in  a  higher  key. 

Such  practice  as  this  sliould  be  continued  until  we  have  be- 
come accustomed  to  tuning  the  vocal  chords  true  to  the  note 
before  we  sing  it.  Tliere  must  be  no  straining  or  pinching  of 
tlie  tlu-oat.  Tlie  action  necessary  to  the  accomplishment  of 
this  should  be  an  easy  and  natural  accompaniment  to  our 
thought  of  the  sound  we  wish  to  sing. 

Tiie  fault  of  sliding  up  to  sounds  in  the  manner  described 
arises  sometimes  from  a  difficulty  in  sounding  consonants  up 
to  a  given  pitch. 

The  previous  exercises  should  therefore  be  sung  to  all  such 
sounds  as  la  la,  ta  ta,  fa  fa,  ca  ca,  anrl  the  various  other  conso- 
nant alternations  that  will  suggest  themselves. 

Flexibility  ofVoice. — Tlie  practice  of  singing  scales  is,  of 
course,  of  great  benefit  to  the  voice.  By  this  exercise  flexibil- 
ity is  obtained,  wiiile,  sung  with  increase  and  decrease  of  tone, 
such  practice  will  also  bring  Avith  it  a  development  of  power 
in  the  vocal  organ. 

It  lias  already  been  said  that  we  do  not  hear  our  own  voice 
as  others  hear  it;  we  probably  should  not  know  it  if  we  did. 
It  vibrates  inthiii  our  own  head,  while  the  sound  of  otiier  voices 
falls  upon  our  ears  from  witliout.  Unaided  by  a  teacher, 
therefore,  we  may  not  get  as  far  along  the  road  to  finished  vo- 
calism  as  it  is  possible  to  go.  The  careful  following  up  of  the 
various  hints  contained  in  this  chapter  will,  however,  bring  the 
reward  of  considerable  advancement  to  "  those  who  have  ears 
to  hear." 


62  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

CHAPTER    VIII 
THE  ORGAN 

The  opportunity  of  playing  upon  the  organ  comes  to  many 
who  cannot  easily  obtain  instruction  upon  the  instrument.  The 
remarks  of  tlie  following  chapter  are  intended  to  convey  to 
these  the  information  usually  derived  in  early  organ  lessons. 
We  will  assume  that  the  pupil  has  already  become  acquainted 
with  the  key-board,  since  it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  piano 
(excepting  that  its  compass  is  smaller),  and  also  that  a  general 
knowledge  of  music  has  been  acquired.  In  all  other  matters 
we  will  treat  the  pupil  as  a  beginner,  and  endeavor  to  give 
such  hints  as  would  lead  him  satisfactorily  through  the  diffi- 
culties which  first  of  all  present  tliemselves.  Although  the 
blowing  of  the  instrument  does  not  devolve  upon  the  plaj'cr, 
it  is  important  that  he  should  have  a  full  knowledge  of  this 
department  to  start  with.  More  harm  can  be  done  to  the  organ 
by  bad  blowing  than  by  bad  playing,  therefore 

Bsee  tliat  this  duty  is  always  properly  performed, 
according  to  the  following  directions: 
The  bellows'  handle  should  be  firmly  grasped 
^^  near  the  outer  end,  and  then  moved  down  and 

LMPTY    up  with  a  sloxo,  sweeping  stroke,  v^\\\cS.\  must  be 
—  absolutely  free  from  all  ie?■^'^H^.     An  indicator 

usually  shows  the  amount  of  wind  contained 
in  the  reservoir,  and  this  should  be  kept  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  position  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

With  a  soft  organ  a  very  slow  stroke  will 
suffice  to  keep  in  the  wind ;  a  loud  organ  will 
require  a  quicker»and  stronger  stroke;  in  all 
FULL    cases  the  indicator  must  be  made  to  ride  stead- 
ily  in  one  place.     Wind  must  on  no  account 
'^'  be  blown  when  the  indicator  is  at  full,  as  this 

causes  a  straining  of  the  wind-chest,  and  gives 
annoyance  to  the  player  by  the  noise  of  superfluous  wind  rush- 
ing from  the  escape-valve. 


THE  ORGAN. 


63 


Having  given  these  instructions  to  the  blower,  we  will  take 
our  seat  at  the  key -board,  and  endeavor  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  stops  of  the  organ. 


STATELL. 

Oboe. 
Cornopean. 

Mixture. 
Flautina. 

Principal. 
Stopped  Diapason. 

dulciana. 
Open  Diapason. 

Bourdon. 
Tremolo. 

COUPLERS. 

Great  to  Pedal. 
Swell  to  Pedal. 

Swell  to  Great. 


GREAT. 

Trumpet. 
Mixture. 

Fifteenth. 
Twelfth. 

Principal. 
Harmonic  Flute. 

Gamba. 
Clarabella. 

Open  Diapason. 
Double  Diapason. 

PEDAL. 

Double  Open  Diapason. 
Bourdon. 


^ 


ill  mil  II  wvwwwv 


^ 


CP.E.AT 

i//it  iin\  wwwww 


^ 


^ 


Fig.  22. 


The  instrument  before  us  is  one  of  mmlenite  size,  and  the  in- 
formation necessary  to  sin  understanding  of  its  various  ap- 
pliances will  not  be  more  than  is  generally  required  by  the 
amateur  organist. 

We  have  here  a  two-manual  instrument,  the  upper  manual, 
or  row  of  keys,  being  called  the  Sirell  Organ,  and  the  lower, 
the  Orcnt  Oir/an.  On  cither  side  of  the  manuals  are  the  stops, 
which  in  this  organ  are  twenty-five  in  number.  The  upper 
nine  stops  on  the  left-hand  side  act  upon  the  Swell  Organ;  the 


64  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

upper  ten  stops  upon  the  right-hand  side  act  upon  the  Groat 
Or^an. 

The  Great  Organ.  —  First  let  us  draw  the  stop  ' '  Open 
Diapason  "  from  those  on  the  right,  and  play  a  simple  chord 
u  on  the  lower  manual.  The  notes  should  be  pressed  firmly 
down  to  the  bottom  at  once,  and  we  then  hear  the  full  clear 
tone  of  tlio  pipes  sounding  out  the  chord  we  have  struck. 

Open  Diapason,  8  ft. — The  pipes  that  are  speaking  are 
those  which  appear  for  the  most  part  in  the  front  of  the  organ 
— usually  the  decorated  or  gilded  pipes.  Of  these  there  are 
fifty-si.x  in  all,  which  we  shall  find  is  exactly  one  for  each  note 
on  the  manual.  We  touch  the  lowest  note  of  the  key-board,  C, 
and  wind  is  at  once  allowed  to  pass  to  the  longest  of  these 
pipes.  Touching  the  next  key  above,  C#,  the  next  pipe  (one  a 
trifle  shorter)  is  heard  to  speak ;  so  passing  upward  in  the 
scale  we  should  hear  each  pipe  in  turn,  until  we  reached  the 
short  pipes  which  are  placed  away  out  of  sight  behind  their 
gilded  relations. 

We  notice  that  beneath  the  name  of  the  stop  is  printed  8  ft.; 
this  has  reference  to  the  length  of  the  longest  pipe  6f  this  set, 
which  we  should  find  to  be  eight  feet  from  the  opening  near 
the  foot  to  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  pipe.  By  this  mark 
upon  the  stops  we  can  determine  their  pitch.  If  we  draw 
other  stops  marked  8/^,  and  play  the  same  note  for  each,  say 

Effi=i:^3,  we  shall  find  the  pitch  in  every  case  the  same, 

though  different  qualities  of  tone  exist,  which  may  be  explained 
later  on. 

Any  stop  marked  8  //.  can  be  used  separately,  though  some 
are  more  suitable  for  separate  use  than  others;  the  tone  of 
each  will  be  found  to  correspond  in  pitch  to  that  of  the  piano. 

Principal,  4  ft. — Putting  in  ihe  eight-feet  stops  that  may  be 
out,  we  will  draw  the  one  marked  Principal,  4  ft.  We  now 
find  tliat  the  notes  we  play  sound  an  octare  higher  than  they 
did  when  an  eight-feet  stop  was  in  use.  The  Principal  is  a 
complete  set  of  pipes,  one  for  each  note  of  the  key-board,  like 
the  Ope7i  Diapanon,  but  starting  at  the  bottom  with  a  pipe  four 
feet  long,  Avhich  sounds  a  note  exactly  an  octave  higher  than  an 
eight-feet  pipe.     This  stop  is  used  to  give  brightness  and  ful- 


THE  OBGAN.  66 

ness  to  the  tone  of  the  eight-feet  stops,  with  which  it  should  be 
combined. 

Harmonic  Flute,  4  ft. — We  have  here  another  four -foot 
stop,  which  will  therefore  be  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  one  we 
have  just  considered.  The  tone  of  this  stop,  however,  is  much 
richer  and  sweeter  than  that  of  the  Principal;  and,  therefore, 
while  it  may  also  be  combined  with  eight-feet  stops,  it  is  more 
effective  as  a  solo  stop. 

Twelfth,  2f  ft, — This  stop  is  called  the  Twelfth,  because  it 
sounds  a  twelfth  above  the  note   struck.     Thus  with  the 


m 


twelfth  alone,  if  we  strike  ["^  -j  (the  lowest  note  of  the 


key-board)  we  obtain  the  sound  -fe  -  .twelve  notes  above. 


This  stop  can  only  be  used  in  combination  with  others,  and, 
as  it  would  be  objectionable  if  prominent,  it  must  never  be 
drawn  unless  a  large  number  of  other  stops  are  speaking.  Its 
use  is  to  give  brilliance  to  a  full  organ,  and  the  idea  of  the 
stop  has  been  derived  from  the  natural  harmonics  of  a  string, 
tlu;  first  of  which  is  the  octave,  and.  the  second  the  ticelfth. 

The  Fifteenth,  2  ft. — This  stop  speaks  two  octaves  (a  fif- 
teeiilh)  above  the  eight  -  feet  stops,  and  thus  from  the  lowest 
note  of  the  key -board,  the  fifteenth  alone  would  give  us  the 

-«Si- 

sound  P^-:^ri^^,  two  octaves  above.     In  building  up  a  full 

organ,  this  stop  should  be  drawn  before  the  Twelfth,  although, 
owing  to  its  higher  pitch,  it  is  placed  above  it.  The  Fifteenth 
is  used  in  combination  with  the  full  eight  and  four  feet  tone, 
to  which  it  adds  much  brightness. 

Mixture. — Many  varieties  of  this  stop  are  to  be  found,  but 
tluir  >i.se  is  in  all  cases  the  same — viz.,  to  give  brilliance  to  the 
full  organ.  As  a  general  rule  the  Mixture  should  therefore  be 
drawn  only  when  all  the  other  stops  of  the  organ  then  being 
played  ujion  (tiie  Great  or*8irell)  are  out.  A  Mixture  marked 
"two  ranks  "  gives  two  sounds  for  each  note,  which  two  sounds 
are  high  harmonics  of  the  note  struck.  Thus,  putting  down 
6 


66  GUIDK  TO  MUSIC. 

the  lowest  note  of  the  key -board,  the  Mixture  alone  being  out, 


'er 


- .    If  our  Mixture 


we  hear,  most  probably,  the  notes 

be  one  of  three  ranks,  we  hear  three  sounds  for  every  note 

struck,  which  for  the  low  C  may  be  the  following: 


Gamba,  8  ft. — The  tone  of  this  stop  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the' stops  we  have  so  far  considered.  It  came  into  the 
organ  originally  as  the  Viol-di-Oamba,^^^  was  intended  as  an 
imitation  of  the  tone  of  that  stringed  instrument.  The  Oamba 
is  a  louder  stop  than  the  Viol-di- Gamba,  and  its  lone  is  as 
nearly  like  that  of  stringed  instruments  as  any  stop  at  present 
invented.  It  is  most  useful  as  a  solo  stop,  but  in  combination 
with  other  stops  some  very  pleasing  effects  may  be  produced. 

The  pipes  of  all  the  stops  thus  far  spoken  of  are  of  metal, 
differing  slightly  in  shape  in  the  different  stops,  but  being  for 
the  most  part  of  the  type  of  those  visible  in  front  of  the  in- 
strument. 

Clarabella,  8  ft. — The  Clarabella  is  a  sweet,  flute-like  stop, 
the  pipes  of  which  are  of  wood.  The  tone  of  this  stop  is  very 
serviceable  in  solo  effects,  in  soft  voluntaries,  or  in  playing 
over  a  hymn  tune — the  melody  upon  the  Clarabella,  and  the 
accompaniment  upon  a  softer  stop  upon  the  swell.  In  some 
organs  the  Doppel  Flote  (or  Double  Flute)  may  take  the  place 
of  the  Clarabella,  which  in  quantity  of  tone  it  somewhat  resem- 
bles. 

Double  Diapason,  16  ft. — This  stop  is  usually  of  wood, 
and,  being  of  sixteen-feet  tone,  it  sounds  an  octave  lower  than 
the  Opeji  Diapason.  The  pipe  which  sounds  the  lowest  note 
is  only  eight  feet  in  length ;  the  sixteen-feet  lone  is  produced 
by  inserting  a  plug  in  what  is  usually  the  open  end  of  the 
pipe,  which  has  the  effect  of  deepening  its  tone  by  an  octave. 

In  large  organs  the  Double  Diapason  is  frequently  an  open 
metal  pipe,  tlie  lowest  note  being^roduced  by  a  sixteen-feet 
pipe;  but  a  great  deal  of  space  is  required  for  the  stop,  and  it 
is  very  costly. 

Trumpet  8  ft.— It  will  be  noticed  that  this  eight-feet  stop 


THE  OUGAN. 


67 


is  placed  away  from  the  others,  as  also  are  two  such  stops  for 
the  other  manual.  They  are  so  separated  because  they  belong 
to  a  different  class,  being  what  are  called  Reed  stops.  In 
these  the  pipes  are  of  altogether  different  shape  from  those  we 
have  considered,  and  the  tone  is  produced  upon  an  entirely 
different  plan. 

Within  the  metal  "  hoot,"  A' is  a  tongue  of  brass,  over  which 
wind  passes  in  its  passage  to  the  tube,  H.  Tlie  vibration 
of  this  tongue  governs  the  pitch  of  the  note,  and  also 
gives  to  it  that  character  which  we  recognize  as  reed 
tone.  The  projecting  wire,  C,  is  for  tuning  the  reed; 
striking  it  upward  lengthens  the  tongue  and  flattens 
the  tone,  striking  it  downward  shortens  the  tongue 
and  sharpens  the  tone.     (See  also  Fig.  11,  page  6.) 

Tlie  tone  of  the   I'rnmpet  stop  is  cliaracteristic  of 
the  brass  instrument  it  is   named  after,  and  bntii  in 
solo  passages   of  a  stirring,  martial  nature,  and    in 
marches  for  the  full  organ,  it  is 
mo.st  effective. 

Number  of  Pipes  in  Great 
Organ. — There  being  fifty- six 
pipes  for  each  stop,  of  which 
our  Great  Organ  has  ten,  it  will 
be  seen  that,  counting  three 
ranks  for  the  "Mixture,"  we 
have  twelve  limes  fifty -six 
pipes  in  our  Great  Orcjan,  673 
in  all,  the  player  having  perfect 
command  of  each  one. 

The  Swell  Organ.  —  We 
now  i)ass  over  to  tiie  stops  on 
the  left-hand  side,  whicli,  we 
shall  find,  speak  on  the  upper 
niunual. 


Fisr.  23. 


The  Swell  Organ  is  so  called  because  all  its  pipes  are  en- 
closed in  a  large  wooden  case,  in  the  front  of  which  are  shut- 
ters of  Venetian  pattern,  which  can  be  opened  and  closed  by 
the  foot  of  the  performer,  causing  the  tone  to  " /orell"  out  and 
die  away  again.  The  swell  pedal  will  be  found  cither  in  front 
or  to  the  extreme  right,  and,  pressing  this  down  with  the  right 


68  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

foot,  the  shutters  will  open ;  allowing  it  gently  to  rise  again, 
they  will  c-losc.  Tlicre  arc  three  kinds  of  Swell  Pedals  in  gen- 
eral use:  The  Balnnced  Sirell  Pdhd,  which  is  jilaccd  in  front,  is 
used  by  pressing  tlie  heel  of  the  foot  to  open,  and  pressing  the 
toe  to  close  tlie  swell-box.  The  Itatcliet  Swell  Pedal,  which  is 
placed  on  the  extreme  right,  has  a  ratchet  which  stops  the  Swell 
Pedal  from  closing  when  it  is  pressed  down  ;  by  pushing  aside 
the  outer  guard,  the  pedal  is  released  and  closes.  The  old  style 
Swell  Pedal  has  merely  a  catch  to  hold  it  down  or  open  ;  and, 
after  using  the  organ,  the  swell-box  should  alirai/s  be  left  ihua 
open,  that  tlu;  pipes  within  may  stand  at  the  same  temperature 
as  those  without. 

Open  Diapason  Swell,  8  ft.  —  Among  the  Sirell  Organ 
stops  ar(!  several  of  similar  names  to  tliose  of  the  Oreat  Organ. 
These  diirer  from  eacli  otlier  oidy  in  jiower  of  tone.  The 
Open  Diapason  of  the  Sicell  Organ  \s  not  so  large  in  scale  or 
so  powerfully  voiced  as  that  of  tlie  Great  Organ,  though  in 
quality  of  tone' it  is  similar. 

Dulciana,  0  ft. — Tlie  Dalriana  is  a  soft-toned  open  metal 
stop  of  most  agreeable  quality.  It  is  of  immense  service  as 
an  accompaniment  to  the  soft  stops  of  the  Great,  and  is  also 
very  eireclive  in  quiet  pas.sages  liy  itself.  A  soft  stop  called 
Salicional  miglit,  in  some  organs,  be  found  in  place  of  the  Dul- 
ciana.    This  is  a  Gautba  of  small  scale. 

Stopped  Diapason,  8  ft.  (or  Liehlieh  Oedact). — Oedact  being 
the  German  name  for  Stopped  Diapason  and  liehlieh  meaning 
sweet,  this  stop  is,  we  perceive,  a  Sweet  Stopped  Diapason.  It 
is  usuallj'  of  wood,  and,  as  already  described,  by  means  of  plug- 
ging or  stopping  the  open  end  of  tin;  pipe,  an  eight-feet  tone  is 
prcKliiced  from  a  pipe  half  the  length.  It  stands  in  relation  to 
the  other  stops  of  the  Swell  as  the  Clarahella  does  to  the  other 
slops  of  the  Great  Organ. 

Principal,  4  ft. — Similar  to  the  Principal  of  the  Great  Or- 
gan^ but  of  smaller  scale  and  less  jiowerful  tone. 

Flautina,  2  ft.— A  soft  two-feet  stop,  which  serves  the  same 
purpose  in  the  Swell  as  the  Fifteenth  in  the  Great  Organ.  The 
tone  of  the  Flinitina  is  more  sweet  and  llute-like  than  that  of 
the  Fifteenth,  resemliling  as  il  does  the  Piccolo,  by  which  name 
it  is  often  called. 

Mixture. ^ — As  in  tlic  Great  Organ,  a  stop  which  gives  high 


THE  ORGAN.  69 

harmonics  of  the  foundation  tones,  and  imparts  brilliance  to 
the  full  organ.     Often  called  Dolce  Cornet. 

Bourdou,  16  ft. — Practically  the  same  as  the  Double  Diapa- 
son, but  of  softer  tone.  It  imparts  great  body  to  the  tone  in 
full,  heavy  pussnges. 

Oboe,  8  ft.— One  of  the  most  pleasing  reed  stops,  and  ser- 
viceable alike  for  solo  purposes  and,  in  combination  with  other 
stops,  for  accompaniment.  It  is  intended  as  an  imitation  of 
the  Ohoe  or  Ilautbois  (Frencii)  of  the  orchestra,  liiough  the 
tone  of  this  instrument  cannot  be  so  faithfully  represented  in 
the  organ  as  can  that  of  some  orchestral  instruments. 

Cornopean,  8  ft. — A  reed  stop  of  bolder  character  than  the 
Oboe,  intended,  like  the  Trumpet,  to  imitate  the  tone  of  the  brass 
instrument  from  whicli  it  is  named. 

Number  of  Pipes  in  the  Swell. — Having  nine  stops  in 
the  Swell,  and  counting  tlie  Mi.vture  as  two  ranks,  we  have 
here  ten  times  lifty-si.x  pipes,  or  a  total  of  560,  which,  added  to 
the  673  in  the  Great,  gives  us  a  grand  total,  for  the  two  organs, 
of  1232. 

Pedal,  Double  Open  Diapason,  16  ft. — Beneath  the  Great 
Organ  slops  on  the  right  are  two  stops  which  speak  only  upon 
the  pedals. 

There  are  usually  thirty  notes  upon  the  pedal  organ,  and 
drawing  the  pedal  Doulile  Open  Diapason,  we  bring  into  play 
thirty  pipes  of  deep,  iieavy  tone,  tlie  deepest  of  which,  the 
sixleen-feet  iTi[)e,  we  liear  when  we  put  down  the  lowest  pedal 
with  tlie  foot.  The  pipes  are  of  wood,  and  they  form  that 
efTective  rolling  bass  which  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  organ. 

Bourdon,  16  ft. — Like  the  Bourdon  of  the  manuals,  this  is  a 
8toi)ped  pipe,  producing  sixteen-feet  tone  from  a  pipe  half  the 
l(!nglh,  and  forming  an  agreeable  bass  for  the  soft  stops  of  the 
organ. 

Total  Number  of  Pipes. — Adding  tiiese  two  rows  of  thirty 
])ip(  s  to  the  t(^lal  number  contained  in  the  Great  and  Stcell,  wo 
hiiti  that  our  organ  contains  altogether  1292  pipes. 

The  Couplers. — Tiie  stops  wliich  remain  yet  to  be  spoken 
of  are  not  speaking  stops,  but  are  mechanical  appliances  for 
coupling  one  op^^an  willi  another. 

Swell  to  Great. — With  Swell  to  Great  out,  every  note  we 


70  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

play  upon  the  Oreat  Organ  draws  down  the  corresponding 
note  upon  the  Sicell  Organ.  It  is  thus  possible,  with  all  the 
stops  of  both  organs  drawn,  to  give  forth  the  full  tone  of  the 
Great  and  Swell  combined.  We  may  also  effect  anj-  other 
combination  we  please,  such  as  Clarabdla  (gt.)  and  Ditlciana 
(sw.),  or  Open  Diapason  (gt.)  and  Oboe  (sw.),  by  means  of  this 
useful  coupler. 

Great  to  Pedal. — With  this  Stop  out,  all  notes  played  upon 
the  Pedal  Organ  draw  down  the  corresponding  notes  upon  the 
Oreat  Organ. 

Swell  to  Pedal.— Similarly  this  stop  combines  the  notes  of 
the  Pedal  Organ  with  those  of  the  Strell,  and  thus  we  are  en- 
abled to  make  the  bass  agree  with  whatever  combination  we 
may  be  u.sing  for  the  hands. 

Tremolo. — A  mechanical  device  placed  on  a  feed-trunk,  near 
the  bellows,  which  gives  a  vibratory  movement  to  the  air  which 
similarly  affects  the  sound  produced.  This  stop  is  effective 
only  on  the  softer  stops  of  the  Organ. 

Combination  Pedals. — Above  the  Pedals,  and  within  con- 
venient reach  of  the  feet,  are  certain  iron  pedals  for  throwing 
out  the  stops  in  different  combinations.  The  order  in  which 
these  are  placed,  and  the  combinations  they  produce,  vary  so 
much  that  a  definite  description  of  these  is  not  possible. 

A  good  arrangement  and  a  useful  set  of  combinations  for 
the  organ  we  are  considering  would  be  as  here  shown: 


SVfEUL  CnEAT 


frill  I  PRiNciRAu  MAKMONic  FLurm 

LIEBUCM  CEDACr  CKHBk  FULl. 

DULCIAHA         U£BLICH  CtDACT     CAMB*  CUKAttlLA 

OPCN  olAPAiON       OULC/ANA  r.LAHAtlUh     OHK  OlAfMOM 


Fig.  24. 

Choir  Organ. — Should  the  organ  upon  which  we  have  the 
opportunity  of  practising  possess  three  manuals,  the  additional 


THE  ORGAN.  11 

organ  will  be  called  the  Choir;  this  will  be  the  lowest  of  the 
three  rows  of  keys.  The  stops  contained  in  this  organ  may  in 
several  cases  be  found  similar  in  name  to  those  we  have  be- 
come acquainted  with,  and  will  therefore  need  no  description. 
•  We  may  here  find  a  beautiful  and  very  useful  reed  stop,  the 
Clarionet,  which  in  many  organs  is  a  very  perfect  imitation  of 
the  important  instrument  of  that  name. 

With  a  three-manual  instrument  we  may  be  so  fortunate  as 
to  have  the  Vox  Humana  slop,  though  this  will  most  frequently 
be  found  in  the  Swell.  The  Tremolo  is  always  drawn  with  the 
Vox  Humana.  This  stop,  if  good,  is  a  beautiful  addition  to  an 
organ,  imitating  the  human  voice,  as  it  does  in  some  cases,  with 
great  exactitude.  It  is  not,  however,  an  unmixed  blessing  in 
an  organ,  for  several  reasons.  It  is  more  liable  to  get  out  of 
order  than  any  other  stop ;  it  is  subject  to  more  abuses  at  the 
hands  of  incompetent  or  injudicious  performers,  and  it  is  more 
dependent  upon  the  acoustic  properties  of  the  building  for 
effect. 

32-ft.  Stops. — Larger  organs  will  contain  stops  upon  the 
Pedals  of  thirty -two  feet  tone.  In  the  Auditorium  (Chicago) 
organ  are  three  such  stops;  one  of  metal,  one  of  woofl,  and  one 
reed,  with  wood  pipes — the  lowest  note,  that  of  the  thirty-two- 
feet  pipe,  sounding  an  octave  below  tiie  lowest  C  of  the  piano 
key-board. 

64-ft.  Reed  Stop.— In  the  organ  built  by  Messrs.  Hill  &  Son 
for  Sj'dney  Town-hall  (Australia)  is  a  reed  stop,  with  wood 
pipes  of  sixty-four-feet  tone,  tlie  lowest  note  of  which  is  two 
octaves  below  the  lowest  C  of  the  piano!  Notes  of  such  a 
depth  cannot,  of  course,  be  musical  in  themselves,  though,  com- 
bined with  tlie  thirty-two-feet  and  sixteen-feet  tone,  such  a 
stop  may  be  effective. 

Studies  for  the  Organ. — For  one  desirous  of  doing  earnest 
work  at  tliis  noble  instrument,  and  wishing  to  commence  at 
tlK!  very  beginning,  a  most  useful  set  of  studies  will  be  found 
in  Rink's  Practical  Organ  ScJiool,  six  parts,  published  by  Messrs. 
Novello  &  Co.,  in  which  exercises  in  all  grades  of  difficulty, 
from  those  of  the  simplest  possible  nature,  are  given. 

Importance  of  Sustaining  Notes. — In  commencing  work 
at  the  organ,  the  student  should  be  careful  to  remember  the 
importance  of  giving  to  each  note  its  exact  time  value.     Upon 


72  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

the  piano  the  note  dies  away  as  we  hold  it,  and  therefore  it  is 
the  habit  of  many  who  play  upon  that  instrument  to  regard 
the  striking  of  tlte  note  at  the  right  time  as  of  first  importance, 
and  the  loosing  of  the  note  at  its  given  time  as  of  secondai'y  im- 
portance— if  it  is  regarded  as  being  of  any  importance  at  all. 
Upon  the  organ,  the  lifting  of  the  note  at  the  right  time  is 
just  as  important  as  the  stnking  of  it  at  the  right  time.  There- 
fore, let  every  attention  be  given  to  the  observance  of  the  time 
lengtii  of  the  notes  to  be  played,  wherever  they  lie,  taking  care 
that  each  one  has  its  full  value,  and  no  more. 

Clearness  and  Smoothness  of  Touch, — The  overlapping 
of  two  sounds  upon  the  organ  is  a  fault  also  to  be  studiously 
avoided.  To  obtain  a  clear  and  smooth  touch,  scale  passages 
should  be  practised  both  with  hands  and  feet,  and  the  suc- 
cessive notes  rendered  with  evenness,  smoothness,  and  well- 
balanced  tone  throughout.  Clearness  demands  that  each  note 
shall  be  lifted  before  the  next  be  struck,  and  smoothness  de- 
mands that  the  notes  shall  be  kept  as  close  together  as  possible. 

A  book  cannot  well  teach  the  art  of  organ-playing;  and  we 
will,  therefore,  not  attempt  to  carry  our  remarks  upon  the 
practical  side  of  this  subject  further,  but  will  conclude  by  ex- 
pressing the  hope  that  the  studies  recommended  may  be  dili- 
gently pursued,  and  that  the  student  may  be  rewarded  by  be- 
coming an  able  performer  upon  the  "king  of  instruments." 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE  GnOWTII  OF  MUSIC 

Let  us  for  a  moment  imagine  our  world  stripped  of  every- 
thing we  call  "musical,"  excepting  such  things  as  belonged  to 
the  world  of  Nature  before  the  time  of  man. 

Then  let  us  look  at  the  score  of  a  modern  symphony  or  ora- 
torio, or  listen  to  the  performance  of  one  or  the  other  of  lliese, 
noticing,  as  we  listen,  its  many  forms  of  movement,  its  varied 
expressions,  and  the  wonderful  and  diverse  quality  of  its  sepa- 
rate sounds. 

Let  us  reflect  also  that  this  composition  is  but  one  drop  of  a 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  73 

mighty  ocean  of  music  wliich  rolls  and  swells  around  us,  an 
ocean  so  vast  that  the  mind  of  no  living  musician  can  compass 
it  all,  while  it  still  is  rising,  and  is  ever  breaking  in  richer  har- 
mony and  sweeter  strains  upon  our  ears. 

From  such  a  reflection  let  us  turn  to  ask  ourselves  the  ques- 
tion, "Whence  has  all  this  come?"  then  from  the  following  re- 
marks, in  which  the  history  of  music  is  briefly  traced,  let  us 
glean  such  answer  to  the  question  as  we  can. 

The  true  source  of  all  the  streams  which  have  formed  and 
fed  the  sea  of  music  we  shall  never  know.  In  some  Avay  they 
arose  and  rippled  o'er  the  distant  plains  of  time,  but  what  their 
depth  and  what  the  burden  of  their  soug  no  living  man  can 
say. 

Bible  historians  give  us,  here  and  there,  side  glances  at  the 
music  of  the  earliest  periods  known,  Avhile  archajologists, 
through  their  discoveries,  have  made  known  the  forms  of  an- 
cient instruments  of  music  then  in  use. 

From  these  we  gather  that  while  music  had  the  foremost 
place  in  all  religious  or  other  festivals,  nothing  but  strains  of 
the  most  monotonous  character  could  possibly  have  been  per- 
formed ui^on  such  instruments  as  were  possessed  at  any  time 
before  the  Christian  era.  Organs  worthy  of  the  name  had  not 
been  built;  an  instrument  of  ten  strings  was  a  thing  to  glory 
in;  trumpets  had  no  slide  or  valves,  and  therefore  no  scale; 
and  music  itself  possessed  no  system  of  notation  beyond  a  few 
signs  above  and  below  the  words,  indicating  a  rising  or  falling 
of  the  strain. 

Our  knowledge  of  written  music  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  time  of  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  a.d.  374.  From  him 
and  Pope  Gregory,  who  flourished  a  century  later,  have  come 
down  to  us  certain  strains  known  severally  as  Ambrosian  Song 
and  Gregorian  Chant. 

Possibly  owing  to  the  soundness  of  the  scale  in  which  these 
melodies  were  set,  giving  them  a  dignity  beyond  that  of  musical 
forms  previously  known,  they  obtained  a  strong  hold  upon 
the  Clnuch  iu  England,  and  to  this  day  have  a  place  in  its 
services. 

Here  is  a  melody  attributed  to  Gregory  which  will  be  quite 
familiar  to  almost  every  one  who  has  any  acquaintance  with 
church  music: 


u 


Harmony  would  seem  to  have  been  unknown,  and  nolliing, 
therefore,  but  the  theme  as  here  given  can  be  said  to  Jiave  be- 
longed to  these  ancient  times. 

An  early  attempt  at  accompaniment  (It  could  scarcely  bo 
called  harmony)  is  the  following: 


m 


—<S> <S> G> r^ ;>-3 ^ *»  — =- 


'-w=m- 


=t=t 


f=f=r=f=f=r^ 


Tu    Pa  -  tris  sera-  pi  -  ter  -  nus  es     Fi  -  li  -  us. 

The  vocal  part  is  that  printed  in  open  notes,  the  black  notes 
above  and  below  it  being  the  instrumental  accompaniment. 
This  example  is  from  Hucbald,  a  benedictine  monk  of  St.  Ar- 
mand,  in  Flanders,  who  lived  from  840  to  930,  and  it  reveals 
all  the  known  advance  music  had  made  up  to  the  ninth  century. 

Every  progression  in  the  above  example,  according  to  our 
present  rules  of  harmony,  would  be  incorrect ;  therefore,  al- 
though the  employment  of  chords  marked  a  great  advance,  a 
better  method  of  employment  had  to  be  discovered  before  har- 
mony was  placed  upon  a  sure  foundation. 

The  system  of  notation  was  considerably  advanced  by  Guido 
of  Arezzo,  who  lived  from  995  to  1050.  Had  the  examples  al- 
ready given  been  printed  in  the  notation  of  the  times  to  which 
they  belonged,  they  would  have  been  quite  unintelligible  to 
most  readers  of  music.  The  first  improvement  brought  about 
by  Guido  was  the  more  systematic  use  of  lines  and  spaces  for 
writing  signs  indicating  the  notes  to  be  sung.  The  second  im- 
provement (and  this  was  a  most  important  one)  was  that  of 
giving  to  the  notes  of  the  scale,  as  then  known,  the  syllabic 
names — 

nt,     re,     mi,    fa,     sol,     la, 
C      D      E      F      G      A 


by  which  names  they  are  familiar  even  to  this  day,  though  for 
nt,  do  has  been  substituted  with  us. 


THE  GROWTH  OP  MUSIC.  15 

These  syllables  were  taken  by  Guido  from  the  ancient  hymn 
in  honor  of  John  the  Baptist,  which,  with  the  music  of  the 
Ambrosian  period  to  which  it  was  sung,  is  given  below : 


My                   <s>          ^  ■■     -A 

\-  r~'   'd'     = 

-1^ — ^     .c?     ^     >=.    ^-^    g. 

-^ — G>    r^    <is>— ^    '=-' 

-— ^ 

TJt    que-  aut   lax    -     is       Re  -  so  -  na  -  re   fi  -  bris,    Mi    - 

ra 

L^:...g,  ^  ^  ^  - 

-SSt-SS     -r—^J.     s> 

^  "    '^    j^    es    ^ 

r^ 

gcs    -    to  -  rum, 

Fa  -  mu-li     tu  -  o  -  rum. 

Sol    -    -     ve   pol-lu 

-ti 

La  -  bi  -   i        re  -   a    -    -    turn     Sane    -     te      Jo  -  han  -  nes. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  first  notes  of  the  first  six  phrases 
of  the  melody  are  the  notes  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  and  the  syllables 
to  which  they  are  sung  are  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  and  these,  as 
we  have  observed,  were  given  as  names  to  the  notes. 

Ti)e  twelfth  century  saw  the  introduction  of  characters  by 
whicli  the  length  of  sounds  could  be  represented ;  it  saw  also 
tiie  dawning  of  ideas  upon  the  subject  of  rhyllun,  or  the  meas- 
uring of  music  into  bars  of  equal  length,  though  all  its  measures 
were  of  a  most  grave  and  sober  nature,  semibreves  being  the 
shortest  notes  employed. 

Hitherto  in  attempts  at  harmony  all  the  parts  had  moved 
slavishly  up  and  down  with  the  melody,  but  now  touches  of 
independent  movement  began  to  show  themselves.  Perotin,  a 
French  composer,  had,  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century, 
imparted  a  touch  to  composition  which  was  followed  by  re- 
markable results.  These  may  not  all  have  been  attributable  to 
him ;  a  train  of  thought  seems  to  have  been  fired  in  musical 
minds  everywhere  at  about  tliis  time,  and  the  boundless  possi- 
bilities of  music  as  an  art  seemed  at  once  to  be  revealed. 

The  toucli  referred  to  was  but  a  feeble  attempt  at  "imita- 
tion," a  copying  in  one  voice  or  instrument  of  the  theme  pre- 
viously sung  or  played  by  another,  the  two  parts  beinir  made 
to  produce  harmony  while  moving  independently.  But  this 
meant  much:  It  pointed  to  the  ingenious  Caiion,  which,  soon 


16 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


followed;  lliis  in  turu  led  to  the  noble  Fugiie,  a  form  of  com- 
position on  wliicli  lias  been  expended  the  deepest  tliought  of 
the  greatest  musicians  who  have  ever  lived;  it  indicated  an 
unlimited  variety  of  new  musical  effects,  and  composers  were 
soon  vying  with  each  other  in  the  appropriation  of  these  in 
their  compositions. 

Tlie  following  example  shows  how  remarkable  was  the  ad- 
vance made  in  part  writing  at  about  this  time,  for  the  compo- 
sition is  supposed  to  date  from  tlie  year  1226,  and  it  reveals  an 
independence  in  the  movement  of  its  several  parts,  a  purity  in 
its  harmonies,  and  an  ingenuity  of  form  never  before  equalled. 
It  has  been  attributed  to  more  than  one  composer,  but  it  is  un- 
doubtedly by  an  Englishman,  and  it  marks  the  commencement 
of  the  Madrigal  in  English  vocal  music. 

The  Canon  form  is  here  employed ;  the  upper  parts,  four  in 
number,  having  one  subject  which  is  taken  up  by  each  in  turn; 
and  the  lower  parts,  two  in  number,  having  a  different  subject, 
which  serves  as  a  ground  bass: 

SUMER  IS  ICUMEN   IN. 


Su  -  mer      is       i 


P 


^^Z==f 


Sinp 


^^^^-'— ^ 


Sing  cu 


Sing  cu 


THE  GROWTH  OP   MUSIC. 


11 


Su  -  mer   is      i  -   cu  -  men  in, Lhu  -  do 


■G>         j^ 


Su  -  mer 


e=a==j 


cue  •    -    en, 


Sing 


The  development  of  this  form  of  composition  soon  occupied 
the  utteiition  of  English  composers,  especially  such  as  were  in- 
terested ulso  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vocal  art.  An  awakening 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  singers  themselves  naturally  followed, 
for  instead  of  having  monotonous,  drone-like  strains  to  sing, 
they  found  pleasant  forms  allotted  to  them.  Secular  poetry, 
particularly  such  as  was  of  a  pastoral  character,  found  utter- 
ance in  the  new  school  of  music,  and  musical  souls  everywhere 
revelled  in  the  greater  flights  wliich  in  these  freer  strains  they 
were  enabled  to  take. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  world  was  enriched  with  many 
compositions  of  great  beauty,  by  wliich  further  charms  of  form 
in  vocal  music  were  revealed.  Detinite  shape  was  given  at  this 
l)eriod  to  the  ^f(('/ril/(l/,  i\  form  of  composition  which  became 
imniensel}^  popular,  and  received  iiuich  attention  from  musi- 
cians everywhere,  but  particularly  in  England. 


78  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Scarcely  any  other  branch  of  musical  art  seems  at  this  time 
to  have  nourished  at  all  conspicuously,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the 
fact  thai  musical  instruments  were  still  very  imperfect,  thus 
affording  but  limited  scope  for  the  powers  of  composers.  The 
voice  adapted  itself  to  new  forms  at  once,  while  instruments 
were  but  slowly  being  made  to  do  so. 

Tallis,  who  was  born  in  1515,  wrote  much  choral  music  for 
the  Church,  and  also  devoted  himself  to  the  writing  of  unac- 
companied vocal  music  of  a  secular  character.  Chief  among 
his  efforts  in  this  direction  is  a  parl-song  for  eight  choirs  of 
five  voices,  forty  parts  in  all,  in  the  working  out  of  which  an 
immense  amount  of  ingenuity  must  have  been  expended.  It 
was  not  in  the  multiplicity  of  its  parts,  however,  that  choral 
music  was  to  find  its  highest  development,  and  this  example  was 
wisely  not  followed  by  later  composers.  Tallis  was  organist  of 
Waltham  Abbey  during  one  period  of  iiis  life;  he  died  in  1585. 

Coming  a  little  later  than  Tallis.we  have  several  English  com- 
posers whose  work  remains  with  us  to  this  day,  being,  in  purity 
of  style  and  richness  of  harmony,  all  that  could  be  desired. 

Thomas  Morley,  1570  to  1C04,  will  be  known  to  all  lovers  of 
the  ^ladrigal  by  "Now  is  tlie  month  of  Maying,"  and  "My 
bonnie  lass  she  smileth  ;"  Orlando  Gibbons,  158i3  to  1625,  by 
"The  Silver  Swan,"  a  beautiful  example  of  writing  for  five 
voices;  and  John  Wilbye,  1560  to  1612,  by  the  two  delightful 
five-part  Madrigals:  "Flora  gave  me  fairest  flowers,"  and 
"  Sweet  honey-sucking  bees." 

By  far  the  cleverest,  richest,  and  most  elaborate  composition 
of  this  period  is  the  Madrigal,  "  As  Vesta  was  from  Lalmos  hill 
descending," by  Tliomas  Weelkes,who  lived  from  1560  to  1609. 
The  contrapuntal  skill  displayed  in  lliis  work  is  marvellous, 
and  in  it  tlie  highest  point  of  Madrigal  writing  would  seem  to 
have  been  readied. 

Since  the  time  to  which  these  compositions  belong,  imaccom- 
panied  choral  music  has  always  held  an  important  place  among 
musicians  everywhere,  though  it  has  been  more  cultivated  in 
England  than  elsewhere.  In  tracing  the  progress  of  this  pure 
stream  of  music,  we  must  not  do  more  than  mention  the  names 
of  some  few  musicians  whose  works  have  flowed  into  it  as 
tributaries,  helping  to  swell  the  tide  of  song  which  gladdens  us 
in  the  present  day. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MTTSIC.  19 

In  addition  to  the  names  of  sixteenth-centmy  composers  al- 
ready mentioned,  we  must  add  those  of  W.  Byrd,  J.  Dowland, 
and  R.  Edwards,  who  by  their  works  are  known  to  this  day. 

Tlie  following  century  gave  us  H.  Laws,  J.  Weldon,  Dr. 
Blow,  Dr.  Aldrich,  and  Henry  Purcell,  all  of  whom  added  to 
tiie  store  of  good  choral  music — Purcell, whose  life  was  shorter 
than  any  of  tlie  others  (he  lived  but  thirty-seven  years),  contrib- 
uting the  largest  share. 

Purcell's  "Come  if  you  dare,"  and  "Britons,  strike  home," 
show  how  vocal  music  was  now  beginning  to  express  other 
sentiments  than  those  of  a  pastoral  or  religious  nature.  Every 
emotion  which  had  found  expression  in  poetry  now  took  fresh 
life  in  some  sympathetic  strain  of  music.  To  it  men  sang  their 
i)att]e  songs,  or  trolled  forth  their  hymns  of  victory.  Love  told 
its  story  in  the  new  and  most  delightful  way,  and  in  the  choral, 
or  tiie  anthem,  man  praised  his  Malicr  as  he  ne'er  had  done  be- 
fore. Then  music  as  an  art  awoke,  and  breathed  the  secret  of 
her  wondrous  possibilities  into  the  ears  of  masters  yet  to  be, 
who  came  and  told  it  forth  to  all  the  world,  and  in  the  telling 
won  the  homage  of  all  nations. 

Twenty-seven  years  after  the  birth  of  Purcell,  George  Fred- 
eric Handel  and  John  Sebastian  Bach  were  born ;  thus  1685 
became  a  memorable  year  in  musical  history. 

Before  speaking  of  the  great  work  of  these  two  composers,  a 
word  or  two  upon  the  condition  of  musical  instruments  in  their 
(lay  is  necessary,  since  by  Handel  and  Bach  instrumentiil  music 
was  made  to  occupy  a  place  equal  in  importance  witii  that 
which  choral  music  had  hitherto  held. 

The  improvements  effected  in  organs  in  the  seventeenth 
century  drew  most  of  our  composers  of  that  age  in  tlie  di- 
rection of  church  music,  tiie  organ  being  used  as  an  accom- 
])anim('nt  to  the  voice.  This  was  probably  the  earliest  combi- 
nation of  instrumental  and  vocal  music  in  true  art  forms. 

Bernliard  Sciimidt,  "Father"  Smith,  as  he  has  always  been 
called  in  England,  was  working  wonders  in  tiie  way  of  organ 
building  at  about  the  time  Handel  and  Biieh  were  born.  He 
had  come  from  Germany  with  such  a  ix'putjition  tliat  lie  was 
at  once  commissional  to  build  an  organ  for  the  Cliapel  Royal, 
Whitehall,  and  afterwards  for  Westminster  Abbey.  He  also 
built  an  organ  for  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  and  became  him 


80  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

self  organist  there,  remaining  until  1708,  in  wLich  year  lie 
died. 

The  organ  was  now  no  longer  the  noisy,  cumbersome  instru- 
ment it  had  been.  It  no  longer  required  herculean  strength  to 
strike  the  keys,  or  eight  or  ten  men  to  tread  the  bellows. 

The  scale  was  now  perfect;  the  keyboard  had  become  almost 
wliat  it  now  is,  but  of  smaller  compass,  and  the  stops  were  of 
sufficient  number  and  variety  to  relieve  the  instrument  of  its 
previous  horrible  monotony. 

Bach's  organ  at  Armstadt,  where  he  took  his  first  appoint- 
ment as  organist  when  nineteen  years  old,  is  described  as  hav- 
ing twelve  stops  upon  the  great  oigan,  seven  upon  the  choir, 
and  five  upon  the  pedals;  the  "swell"  was  then  unknown. 
Thus,  although  it  was  not  the  beautiful  instrument  we  now 
know,  the  organ  was  then  rapidly  becoming  worthy  of  the  at- 
tention of  the  great  composers,  and  by  them  it  was  soon  raised 
to  a  position  of  the  greatest  importance. 

While  the  genius  of  organ  builders  and  music  composers 
combined  was  working  these  changes  in  the  construction  of 
organs,  a  family  of  stringed  instruments  was  rapidly  becoming 
popular  in  the  musical  world.  Forms  had  been  reached  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  Avhich  seemingly  could  not  be  improved 
upon ;  all  further  advance  lay  in  the  better  manipulation  of 
the  instruments  themselves. 

It  was  in  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  beautiful  Cremona 
model  appeared,  and  violin  makers  since  that  time  have  all 
offered  to  it  tlie  sincere  flattery  of  close  imitation.  Violins 
bearing  the  name  of  Amatis,  Straduarius,  Guarnerius,  or  any 
of  these  Cremona  makers,  are  now  most  valuable,  providing  the 
signature  be  genuine  ;  in  purchasing,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  flattery  referred  to  has  sometimes  gone  to  the  length 
of  imitating  not  onlj'  the  model  but  the  signature  of  the  maker. 

In  orchestral  music  two  parts  are  represented  by  violins, 
these  being,  as  it  were,  the  treble  and  alto  of  the  strings. 

The  Viola,  of  similar  form  to  the  violin,  but  larger,  and  hav- 
ing a  compass  deeper  by  a  fifth,  was  the  accepted  tenor  instru- 
ment of  the  string  family,  and  the  Viola  di  gamba,  the  leg-viol 
(so  called  because  it  was  held  between  the  legs  of  tlie  plaj^er), 
became  the  Violoncello  or  bass  of  the  quartet,  and  the  Bass 
Viola,  considerably  enlarged,  developed  into  the  double-bass, 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  81 

an  instrument  taller  than  most  men,  and  requiring  the  per- 
former fo  stand  when  playing  upon  it. 

The  Oboe  and  Bassoon  were  well-known  reed  instruments  at 
this  period,  though  both  these,  and  that  more  ancient  instru- 
ment, the  Flute,  wore  much  more  simple  in  construction  than 
are  those  of  modern  times. 

Of  brass  instruments  the  Trumpet  possessed  qualities  of 
greater  value  to  the  musician  than  any  other  of  this  class, 
though  the  Trombone  and  the  Horn  were  not  unknown. 

The  Harpsichord  was  the  fashionable  instrument  for  accom- 
paniments to  the  voice,  and  this  or  the  organ  was  used  in  the 
performance  of  great  works  such  as  the  Oratorio,  to  supply 
those  rich  harmonics  which  the  genius  of  the  composer  could 
suggest,  but  which  the  orchestra  of  that  day  could  not  perform. 

Handel's  musical  career  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  Ham- 
burg, where  he  was  first  violinist,  and  afterwards  harpsichordist 
(leader  of  the  orchestra)  at  the  Opera-house. 

Music  and  the  Drama  had  long  been  associated,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  latter;  and  now,  in  the  Opera,  they  had  be- 
come merged  in  one.  Upon  the  wisdom  of  the  union  this  is 
not  the  place  to  speak,  but  from  the  musical  standpoint  it  can- 
not but  appear  doubtful,  since  Handel  did  the  noblest  work  of 
his  life  after  his  divorce  from  the  play,  and  Bach,  Haydn,  Bee- 
thoven, Mendelssohn,  Schubert,  and  Scliumann  scarcely  sought 
union  with  it  at  all. 

Mozart's  splendid  pow^ers  as  a  composer  we  know  well  apart 
from  the  Opcua.  Might  we  not  be  intinitely  richer  if  we  could 
say  the  same  of  Wagner  ? 

Italy,  tiie  birthplace  of  the  Opera,  drew  Handel  thither  when 
he  was  about  twenty  years  of  age.  In  Venice  and  in  Rome  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  composition  of  Opera,  achiev- 
ing such  success  as  to  warrant  his  continuance  of  this  work. 
Here  also  he  studied  Oratorio,  a  form  of  composition  which 
Italian  composers  had  originated  before  Handel's  time,  which 
form  in  after-years  he  so  magnified  and  glorified  in  "The  Mes- 
siah" and  "  Israel  in  Egypt." 

Leaving  Italy,  Handel  was  appointed  Kapell-Meister  to  the 
Elector  of  Brunswick,  and  in  response  to  invitations  he  visited 
England  in  1710,  and  finding  London  congenial  to  his  taste,  lie 

B 


82  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

relinquished  all  engagements  in  his  native  land  and  took  up  his 
abode  there,  giving  to  music  in  England  the  splendid  service  of 
the  last  forty-tive  years  of  his  life. 

The  opera  "Rinaldo"  was  tlie  first  to  tell  forth  in  London 
the  greatness  of  tliis  new  composer.  It  was  produced  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  in  the  Ilaymarket,  and  the  charm  of  its  melo- 
dies made  it  popular  with  music  lovers  throughout  the  country. 
Thanks  to  the  art  of  printing,  good  music  could  now  be  spread 
abroad  in  readable  fashion,  though  of  course  its  cost  was  very 
considerable  compared  with  the  wonderful  publications  of  this 
age. 

While  organist  to  the  Duke  of  Cliandos,  who.se  seat  was  near 
to  Edgeware,  Handel  wrote  the  Oratorio  "Esther,"  which, 
however,  was  neither  published  nor  brought  prominently  be- 
fore the  public  for  some  j'ears  after  its  composition.  Here, 
also,  he  rewrote  to  English  words  his  Cantata  "  Acis  and 
Galatea,"  which  work  liad  been  first  written  in  Italy  some  years 
before.  The  anthems  known  as  the  CJuindos  anthems  were 
composed  while  Handel  was  under  the  duke's  i)atronage,  and 
also  a  set  of  pieces  for  tiie  harpsichord,  one  of  whicii  being  the 
■well-known  air  and  variations  "The  Harmonious  I^lacksmilh." 

Having  written  many  operas,  in  none  of  wliich  his  true  great- 
ness was  revealed,  Handel  threw  off  the  trammels  of  the  stage, 
and,  after  a  brief  season  of  illness  and  tiepression  consequent 
upon  his  financial  failure  in  1737,  lie  turned  with  wonderful 
energy  to  the  composition  of  what  were  to  prove  his  sublimest 
oratorios. 

"  Saul,"  in  which  occurs  tlie  deeply  pathetic  "Dead  March," 
was  produced  in  1739,  and  was  followed  soon  afterwards  by 
"Israel  in  Egypt,"  the  noblest  example  of  choral  writing  the 
world  had  ever  seen;  which  work  had  been  written  by  Handel 
in  twenty-seven  days. 

In  the  same  rapid  fashion  was  composed  the  most  popular  of 
all  oratorios,  "The  Messiah,"  which  was  first  produced  in 
Dublin,  in  1742,  and  was  received  there  with  immense  enthusi- 
asm. Not  luitil  eight  years  afterwards,  however,  was  this 
oratorio  favorably  received  in  London,  though  the  homage 
which  has  ever  since  been  paid  to  it  fairly  atones  for  this 
early  slight. 

In  the  performance  of  Handel's  works  full  justice  could 


THE  QROWTH   OP  MUSIC.  88 

never  have  been  done  to  them  in  his  lifetime.  The  great  clioirs 
and  orchestral  societies  which  were  needed  to  give  due  weight 
to  his  mighty  choruses  did  not  exist  in  his  day.  No  composer 
liad  required  such  mighty  forces  before  him,  and  no  composer 
has  since  arisen  whose  works  call  for  production  on  tiie  same 
scale.  In  the  development  of  choral  music  he  accomplished 
in  his  day  that  wiiich  would  seem  to  have  needed  centuries  to 
achieve,  as  a  comparison  of  his  oratorios  with  the  compositions 
of  any  of  his  predecessors  will  show. 

Among  the  many  forms  whicli  Handel  gave  definite  shape 
to  in  liis  works,  tiie  Chornl  Fugue  should  of  course  have  first 
mention,  standing  out  as  it  does  so  conspicuonsly  everywhere. 
Many  noble  instances  of  this  form  are  to  be  found  in  his 
"Messiah,"  the  grand  "Amen"  chorus  being,  perhaps,  the 
most  noteworliiy. 

What  Handel  lias  done  for  the  voice  in  Solo  forms  every  liv- 
ing vocalist  knows.  The  soprano  can  find  songs  of  every  shade 
of  difficulty  from  the  simple  gem  "  Angels  ever  bright  and  fair," 
to  the  brilliant  "Rejoice  greatly."  Contraltos  have  almost 
equal  range  from  the  graceful  air  "Lascia  ch'io  ptauf/a,"  to  "O 
thou  that  tellest."  Tenors  have  everything  tliat  vocal  powers 
can  express,  from  the  tender  "Where'er  you  walk"  to  tlie 
passionate  "Thou  slialt  dash  them."  Basses  have  also  no  capa- 
bilities that  are  unprovided  for  by  Ilandel,  for  to  them  he  has 
given  tlie  gentle  air  "  IIovv  willing  my  paternal  love,"  and  the 
mighty  "  Why  do  the  nations." 

The  instrumental  Ovcrlurc  was  raised  by  Ilandel  to  a  position 
of  the  greatest  importance,  and  in  the  forms  employed  by  him 
may  be  found  suggestions  of  the  Symphony  of  later  years.  In 
the  Overture  to  the  "occasional  oratorio"  are  four  distinct 
movements  of  clearly  defined  and  dilTerent  forms:  an  opening 
Largo,  an  Allegro,  an  Adagio  (Oboe  solo),  and  a  March. 

Tlie  Minuet  form  was  often  employed  by  Ilandel,  and  witlj 
such  freshness  and  beauty  of  tluane  as  greatly  to  enhance  the 
cliarm  of  tiie  movement.  A  pleasing  example  occurs  in  the 
overture  to  "  Samson." 

Tiie  Garotte  also  found  treatment  at  the  hands  of  this  master. 
In  No.  5  of  the  third  .'^et  of  "  Six  Concertos  for  the  har|)sicliord 
or  organ,"  comiioscd  by  Ilandel,  will  be  found  a  beautiful  ex- 
ample of  this  (laiicc   form,  scored   for  violins,  liautboys,  bas- 


84 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


soons,  violas,  violoncellos,  double-basses,  with  a  solo  part  for 
liarpsiclioid  or  organ.  Showing  the  popularity  of  dance  forms 
al  this  time, we  may  mention  that  a  Minuet  precedes  tiie  Gavotte 
in  the  concerto  of  whiclLwe  are  speaking.  The  musical  forms 
of  tiie  Minuet  and  Gavotte  remain  popular  to  this  day,  their 
rhythm  being  particularly  fivscinating.  Other  dance  measures 
of  similar  antiquity,  which  through  the  music  written  for  them 
still  remain  more  or  less  known,  are:  the  Boiwee,  a  lively 
French  dance  in  ^  lime,  two  half-notes  in  a  bar  ;  the  Saraband, 

a  slow  Spanish  dance  in  ^  time  ;  the  Courante,  in  quicker  5 

time,  an  old  country-dance ;  and  the  Oiguc,  a  frolicsome  "g  time 
measure. 

In  the  fifth  concerto  of  Handel's  for  harpsichord  and  organ 
(second  set),  is  a  Presto  in  g  time  with  the  following  subject: 
Presto. 


A  movement  such  as  this  would  now  be  called  a  Scherzo;  it 
is  here  called  by  Handel  simply  Presto;  in  it  he  devised  the 
Scherzo  form,  but  did  not  apply  the  name. 

A  few  bars  from  the  Allegro  which  precedes  this  movement 
arc  here  given  as  showing  in  another  form  the  light  and 
sportive  side  of  Handel,  a  side  whicli  appears  more  in  these 
concertos  than  elsewhere : 


Allegro. 


^E 


Jt_f:e«ffi 


i^ 


^ 


THE  GROWTH   OP  MUSIC. 


85 


i^J3jj5j3jn^^^i 


S= 


The  choral  works  of  Handel  reveal  him  at  his  best.  In  solo 
and  chorus  alike  he  shows  a  marvellous  appreciation  of  the 
powers  of  the  voice;  and  whatever  the  subject,  whether  grave, 
majestic,  sentimental,  or  declamatory,  the  true  effect  is  always 
found  in  the  setting.  He  reaches  the  summit  of  his  powers  as 
a  composer  in  "Israel  in  Egypt"  and  "The  Messiah;"  though 
after  producing  these  works  he  continued  to  write  oratorio 
after  oratorio,  with  constant  fresliness  of  tiiought  and  rapidity 
of  pen,  until,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven,  he  became  blind,  and  in 
1759  he  died. 


John  Sebastian  Bach  was  the  greatest  of  a  distinguished 
family  or  tribe  of  German  musicians  of  this  name,     lie  was 


86  GUIDB  TO  MUSIC. 

born  in  Eisenach,  and  was  brought  up  amid  an  atmosphere,  of 
music,  which  in  early  life  proved  itself  in  every  way  congenial 
to  liim.  The  organ  liad  the  most  powerful  attraction  for  Bach 
when  quite  a  boy,  and  by  the  time  he  was  twenty-five  years 
old  he  had  gained  for  himself  a  reputation  throughout  Ger- 
many as  a  performer  upon  that  glowingly  popular  instru- 
ment. 

By  his  compositions  he  alone  did  enough  to  win  for  the  organ 
tlie  proud  title  of  "king  of  instruments,"  and  for  himself  that 
of  "king  of  composers"  for  it.  He  did  for  the  organ  what 
Handel  did  for  the  voice.  However  we  increase  our  vocal 
forces  in  this  day,  they  cannot  grow  beyond  the  weight  and 
dignity  of  Handel's  themes ;  and  so,  Iiowever  mucli  the  organ 
may  improve  or  be  enlarged,  it  never  can  outgrow  the  Pre- 
ludes, Fugues,  and  other  organ  works  of  this  composer.  For 
these  he  is  revered  by  organists  throughout  the  world,  and 
much  is  the  player  to  be  envied  who  has  the  power  to  freely 
interpret  them. 

Although  Bach  is  so  much  more  widely  known  through  his 
organ  compositions  than  through  his  other  woiks,  it  is  not  on 
these  alone  that  liis  claim  to  greatness  rests.  In  sublimity  of 
effect,  and  in  depth  of  thought,  his  settings  of  "The  Passion  of 
our  Lord"  have  never  been  surpassed  by  any  composer  before 
or  since  his  time.  In  these,  and  in  his  many  Sacred  Cantatas, 
liis  treatment  of  both  voices  and  instruments  is  truly  inimitable. 
With  marvellous  skill  he  builds  up  his  great  choral  numbers, 
laying  form  \ipon  form,  from  the  lowest  voice  part  to  the 
highest,  and  from  the  deepest  instrument  to  the  topmost  in  the 
score,  each  form  perfect  and  seemingly  under  no  constraint 
whatever  in  its  movement,  yet  as  a  whole  uniting  in  one  great 
purpose — the  expression  of  the  master's  feeling. 

The  motets  for  double  choir  by  Bach  are  magnificent  models 
of  this  .school  of  composition,  and  few  composeis  have  en- 
deavored to  imitate  these  noble  forms  of  choral  writing.  "I 
wrestle  and  pray,"  and  tiie  grand  "Sing  ye,"  appear,  in  fact, 
to  be  unapproacliable  in  this  day. 

The  Fortji-eifiht  Preludes  and  Fugues  written  by  Bacli  for  the 
Clavichord,  before  the  days  of  the  perfected  piano,  are  among 
the  standard  works  which  all  pianists  are  the  better  and  the 
wiser  for  studying. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  87 

Besides  these,  Bach  wrote  many  sonatas  for  piano  and  violin, 
concertos  for  various  solo  instruments  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniment, fantasias,  and  other  forms  of  composition  for  the 
orcjaii  too  numerous  to  mention,  investing  each  with  that 
special  charm  which  he  alone  could  impart,  and  which  gave 
to  all  he  wrote  a  value  which  time  has  so  far  been  powerless 
to  diminish.  His  work  at  all  times  exercises  the  liealthiest  in- 
fluence over  the  minds  and  hearts  of  musicians,  being,  as  it  is, 
intellectually  and  expressively  sublime. 

Total  blindness  clouded  over  the  later  years  of  Bach's  life,  " 
an  affliction  which  was  just  about  to  fall  upon  Handel  at  the 
time  Bach  died  in  1750.  These  great  contemporary  masters 
each  accomplished  Avonders  in  their  day,  and  to  each  the  cause 
of  musical  art  owes  much.  While  the  influence  of  Handel  is 
more  widely  felt  than  that  of  Bach,  it  does  not  run  as  deep. 
Handel's  music  moves  almost  every  one;  Bach's  moves  only 
the  educated  musician.  All  that  Handel's  music  can  do  in  the 
way  of  influencing  musical  thought,  it  has  done;  Bach's  is  still 
exerting  its  power  to  this  day.  Handel's  remains  lie  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  whither  they  were  borne  with  ever}'-  tribute  of 
respect;  Bach's  were  so  little  reverenced  that,  after  lying 
awhile  in  a  churchyard  in  Leipsic,  they  were  scattered  to  the 
winds,  and  their  resting-place  is  not  known.  But  his  works 
abide,  and  through  them  we  now  can  read  the  greatness  of  the 
soul  tiiat  dwelt  in  him. 

Christopher  Willibald  von  Gluck,  who  was  born  at  Weid- 
enwang  in  1714,  was  tlie  (earliest  composer  to  cope  successfully 
with  the  (liflicultics  of  the  dramatic  form  of  composition.  Al- 
though many  of  the  operas  he  wrote  in  the  early  part  of  his 
life  were  not  above  liie  level  of  those  of  his  contemporaries  of 
the  Italian  School,  the  works  of  his  later  years  bear  the  stamp 
of  true  genius. 

His  early  failures  in  opera  did  not  lead  him,  as  they  had  done 
Handel,  to  abandon  this  form  of  composition.  Conscious,  no 
doubt,  that  his  powers  were  turned  in  what  was  for  him  a 
right  direction,  he  devoted  himself  to  deeper  study  of  music  in 
its  relation  to  the  drama,  and  nerved  himself  for  greater  effort 
towards  the  attainment  of  his  ideal. 

The  great  dramatic  oratorios  of  Handel,  to  which  Gluck  had 


88  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

given  scholarly  attention  when  in  London,  •were  to  him  as  a 
light  upon  his  patli,  and  altliough  he  was  then  thirty-two  years 
old,  he  betook  himself  afresh  to  study. 

lie  had  already  written  "Artaserse,"  "Demetrio,"  "  Tperm- 
nestra,"  "  Artamene,"  "Demofoonte,"  "Siface,"  and  "Fedra," 
all  of  which  operas  had  been  produced  with  some  success  in 
Italy,  where  he  had  studied  and  lived  awhile.  But  his  best 
work  was  to  come.  In  1749  he  again  visited  Italy,  and  when 
in  Rome  wrote  his  opera  "Telemaco,"  a  work  in  which  the 
new  light  was  first  reflected. 

In  1750  he  married  Marianna  Pergin,  the  daughter  of  a 
wealtliy  merchant  who  had  long  opposed  the  matcli,  but  who 
was  now  dead. 

In  1762  Gluck  composed  "Orfeo  ed  Eiirydice,"  and  in  this 
work  the  true  musical  greatness  of  the  master  revealed  itself. 
By  this  opera  he  is  cliielly  remembered,  its  power  and  beauty 
winning  for  him  more  honor  than  he  had  gained  by  any  of  his 
previous  works. 

In  1767  "Alceste"  was  produced,  in  the  music  of  which 
Gluck  sustained,  altliougli  he  did  not  advance,  his  reputation 
as  a  composer.  The  opera  "  Iphigenie  en  Tauride  "  shows  him 
at  the  summit  of  his  powers,  and  after  the  comi)osition  of  this 
no  work  of  great  importance  appeared. 

Content  witli  the  laurels  he  had  gained,  in  affluent  circum- 
stances, with  patrons  and  friends  among  the  highest  in  this  as 
well  as  other  lands,  Gluck  passed  the  remaining  years  of  his 
life  visiting  London  and  other  cities,  and  always  sure  of  a  wel- 
come almost  befitting  a  prince.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  1787,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-three  j'ears. 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn  is  by  far  the  most  notable  musician 
whose  life  dates  from  the  time  of  Handel  and  Bach.  Born  in 
1733,  he  was  therefore  eighteen  years  old  when  Bach  died.  In 
his  childhood  lie  had  displayed  great  enthusiasm  for  mu.sic, 
which  manifested  itself  botli  in  his  singing  and  in  his  handling 
of  the  violin. 

When  eight  years  old  he  became  a  chorister  in  Vienna,  and 
this  post  he  retained  until  his  .seventeenth  year,  at  which  time 
his  voice  broke  and  his  services  were  considered  to  be  no  longer 
of  any  value. 


THE  GROWTH  OP  MUSIC.  89' 

Although  he  had  studied  composition  as  best  he  could  unaid- 
ed, his  abilities  had  so  far  not  won  for  him  any  distinction,  and 
at  nineteen  years  of  age  we  iind  him  the  humble  occupant  of  a 
loft  in  a  wig-maker's  house,  there  struggling  to  master  more 
thoroughl}'  the  mysteries  of  ihe  musical  art. 

Haydn's  geniality  and  buoyant  spirits  not  only  carried  him 
through  all  his  early  dilliculties,  but  they  also  imparted  to  his 
compositions  that  characteristic  of  brightness  by  which  they 
afterwards  won  such  favor.  He  could  smile  at  the  severity  of 
his  misfortunes,  and  he  made  his  music  smile  also.  Like  a 
mountain  rivulet,  it  ripples  and  dances  along,  sparkling  in  the 
light  of  his  touches  of  fancy,  and  being  at  all  times  pure  and 
refreshing. 

Coming  after  Bach,  whose  music  was  more  like  a  broad,  deep, 
mighty  river,  Haydn  was  at  once  more  easy  of  comprehension, 
and  his  style  proved  fascinating  to  music  lovers  generally. 
From  the  time  of  his  introduction  to  Porpora,  then  a  celebrated 
teacher  of  singing,  he  no  longer  had  to  light  with  poverty, 
though  his  first  engagement  was  but  that  of  accompanist  to 
Porpora  at  a  salary  of  six  ducats  a  mouth.  It  was  through 
this  engagement,  however,  that  he  came  under  the  notice  of 
wealthy  patrons  of  the  art  of  music,  by  whom  his  after-life  was 
made  so  agreeable  to  himself  and  so  prolific  in  musical  works 
from  which  the  whole  musical  world  has  derived  pleasure  and 
profit. 

From  the  age  of  twenty-nine  until  he  was  sixty-two  Haydn 
remained  in  the  service  of  one  house,  the  head  of  which  at  the 
time  of  his  first  engagement  was  Prince  Paul  Anton  Esterhaz^. 
Here  as  Kiipell-Meister  and  Kammer-Musicus  he  lived  a  life  in 
every  way  congenial  to  his  tastes,  affording  him  opportunities 
of  developing  his  powers  of  composition,  which  he  in  his 
splendid  activity  emploj'ed  to  the  utmost  advantage. 

Haydn  married,  when  about  twenty -eight  j'ears  old,  the 
daughter  of  tlie  wig-maker  with  whom  he  had  lodged.  The 
match  was  not  a  happy  one,  and  considering  the  circumstances 
this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  Haydn  married  the  girl  not  be- 
cause he  loved  her,  for  they  had  no  tastes  in  common,  but 
purely  out  of  good  feeling  for  her  fatiier,  to  whom  he  consid- 
ered lie  owed  a  debt  of  gratitude  which  could  be  best  jiaid  in 
this  way. 


90  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Among  the  forms  of  composition  wliicli  Ilaj'du  was  chiefly 
inslnimental  in  establisliing  are  the  symphonic  and  the  string- 
quartet.  Of  tlicse  lie  is  ofieii  spoken  of  as  the  "fallier,"  and 
certainl}'  it  is  not  diflicult  to  trace  liis  influence  upon  all  com- 
posers of  such  music  who  came  after  him. 

Of  Symphonies  Hadyn  composed  over  a  hundred,  and  though 
most  of  these  are  scored  for  only  a  small  orchestra,  as  many  as 
eighteen  still  hold  a  high  position  in  the  musical  world,  not- 
withstanding all  that  genius  has  done  since  his  day. 

Of  Strinci-quartets  Haydn  wrote  eighty-three,  and  of  Trios 
(piano,  violin,  and  violoncello)  twenty-four,  and  these  compo- 
sitions form  a  legacy  of  chamber-music  wliich  is  everywhere 
very  warmly  appreciated.  It  is  curious  that  to  the  solo  form 
for  violin,  or  the  duet,  piano  (harpsichord)  :ind  violin,  Ilaydn 
has  given  us  no  contribution,  these  forms  being  left  to  his  suc- 
cessor and  contemporary  Mozart.  lie,  however,  wrote  a  great 
number  of  solos  for  the  viol-di-gambn  (the  forerunner  of  the 
violoncello),  probably  the  most  popular  of  stringed  instruments 
at  that  time,  and  also  as  many  as  forty-four  sonatas  for  the 
harpsichord  or  pianoforte. 

Tlie  choral  works  of  Ilaydn  are  not  nearly  as  numerous  as 
the  instrumental,  and  are  best  known  to  us  through  "The  Cre- 
ation" and  "The  Seasons,"  both  of  which  were  written  when 
the  composer  was  advanced  in  years,  he  being  then  nearly 
seventy.  The  beauty  of  the  themes,  particularly  in  the  solo 
portions  of  "  The  Creation,"  is  a  striking  testimony  to  the  won- 
derful fertility  of  the  old  master's  mind.  The  stream  of  mel- 
ody which  hud  been  flowing  constantly  for  nearly  fifty  years 
is  here  foimd  as  pure  and  fresh  and  beautiful  as  ever.  'I'he 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  oratorio  was  received  wlien  first 
produced  in  Vienna  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  The  peo- 
ple could  not  tire  of  old  "Father  H.aydn." 

In  1791,  and  again  in  1793,  Ilaydn  visited  London,  tliough 
but  for  a  brief  i)eriod  on  each  occa.sion.  A  set  of  sympho- 
nies, partly  composed  during  liis  stay,  was  produced  tliere  at 
concerts  under  the  direction  of  Salomon,  an  Englisli  violinist, 
which  set  contains  some  of  the  finest  symplionies  Ilaydn  ever 
wrote. 

Among  his  English  songs,  "My  mother  bids  me  bind  my 
hair  "  retains  ito  popularity  to  this  day,  its  melody  and  accom- 


THE  GROWTH  OP  MUSIC.  91 

paniment  being  alike  charming,  and  delightful  either  to  sing 
or  pl!i3\ 

Brightness  and  gayety  characterized  Haydn's  music  right  up 
to  the  end,  and  though  in  his  sacred  compositions  this  is  sub- 
dued, in  the  imitative  accompaniments  to  words  which  spealc 
of  dove,  lion,  tiger,  or  worm,  he  still  finds  opportunity  for  the 
expression  of  many  a  happy  musical  thought.  He  himself  said, 
"  I  cannot  help  it,  1  give  forth  what  is  in  me.  When  I  think 
of  the  divine  Being,  my  heart  is  so  full  of  joy  that  the  notes  tly 
off  as  from  a  spindle,  and  as  I  have  a  cheerful  heart.  He  will 
pardon  me  if  I  serve  Him  cheerfully." 

At  the  age  of  seventy-eight  Haydn's  happy,  peaceful  life 
ended,  strangely  enough  amid  the  thunder  of  Froiich  guns 
which  were  then  storming  Vienna. 

Wolfgang  Aiuadeus  Mozart  was  born  at  Salzburg  in  1756, 
when  Haydn  was  twenty-four  years  old.  He  died  in  1791, 
when  Haydn,  then  only  fifty-nine,  was  just  ripening  for  the 
composition  of  his  noblest  works. 

Mozart's  father  was  himself  a  musician,  and  by  the  time  his 
son  was  four  years  old  he  found  in  him  an  apt  pupil.  At  five 
the  infant  Mozart  had  commenced  to  compose  music,  and  at 
siv,  together  with  his  sister  Anna,  who  was  eleven,  he  was 
taken  on  tour  as  a  performer  upon  the  harpsichord.  When 
seven  years  old  he  performed  in  Paris,  and  when  eight  in 
London,  where  the  programme  contained  many  pieces  of  his 
own  composition. 

The  con.stant  care  of  his  father  in  this  early  period  of  the 
son's  life  is  manifested  in  many  ways,  notably  in  his  watchful 
attention  to  the  prosecution  of  the  boy's  studies,  musical  and 
otherwise.  He  at  all  times  accompanied  him,  not  only  upon 
these  early  tours,  but  afterwards  to  Italy,  where  the  studies  of 
tiie  youthful  Mozart  were  continued  with  great  earnestness. 
This  was  not  accomplished  without  some  inconvenience  iind 
pecuniary  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  father,  whose  work  was 
set  aside  entirely  on  his  son's  behalf.  The  filial  devotion  of 
the  son  throughout  his  short  but  wonderful  life  was  his  reward. 

Mozart's  career  was  one  of  constant  work,  worry,  and  unrest. 
He  enjoyed  no  period  of  ease  and  freedom  from  pecuniary  em- 
barrassment such  as  Haydn  enjoyed  for  so  many  years.    Yet 


92  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

In  the  fourteen  years  of  manhood  allotted  to  him  ho  did  a  work 
as  great  and  as  full  of  influence  as  that  accomplished  by  any 
musician  who  came  before  or  after  him. 

The  wonderful  versatility  of  Mozart  makes  it  difficult  to  say 
in  which  particular  field  of  music  he  was  greatest.  It  is  clear 
that  the  dramatic  field  was  the  one  into  which  his  greatest  effort 
was  thrown,  and  in  all  his  operatic  works  we  find  musical  con- 
ceptions of  a  loftier  kind  than  had  previously  been  known. 
The  power  of  the  orchestra  to  depict  through  its  tone-coloring 
the  changeful  emotions  of  the  drama  is  most  strikingly  revealed 
by  him — most  noticeably,  perhaps,  in  his  grand  opera,  "Don 
Giovanni."  This  worli  lowered  high  above  ail  opera  of  its 
time,  and  despite  modern  changes  of  form  it  still  stands  as  a 
model  of  wondrous  beauty  and  transcendent  skill. 

"II  Seraglio,"  "Le  Kozze  di  Figaro,"  and  "Die  Zauber- 
flote"  are  other  operas  of  Mozart's,  in  each  of  which  is  dis- 
played the  same  wealth  of  idea  and  command  over  the  re- 
sources of  vocal  and  instrumental  effects. 

The  symphonies  of  Mozart  stand  next  in  importance  to  his 
operas,  and  in  these  his  skill  in  tone-coloring  is  manifested  in 
an  equally  marvellous  degree.  He  accepts  his  model  for  these 
compositions  from  Ilaydn,  but  in  his  treatment  of  the  orciies- 
tra  he  at  all  times  reveals  powers  of  a  higher  order  than  those 
of  the  master  he  followed.  In  grace  and  beauty  of  theme  he 
could  scarcely  be  held  superior  to  Ilaj'dn,  but  in  depth  of 
thought  and  contrapuntal  skill  in  the  treatment  of  his  themes 
he  is  almost  equal  to  Bach.  The  great  "Jupiter  Symphony," 
with  its  grand  closing  movement  in  double  fugue,  will  probably 
be  considered  by  musicians  every  wliere  the  finest  of  all  3Iozart's 
orchestral  compositions. 

The  quartets  of  Mozart's  for  strings  alone,  or  for  piano  and 
strings,  reflect  the  most  delightful,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
most  thoughtful,  moods  of  the  master.  Again  the  influence  of 
Haydn  is  easily  i)erceived,  and  it  is  also  acknowledged  by 
Mozart  himself,  who  says:  "It  was  from  Haydn  that  I  first 
learned  the  true  way  to  compose  quartets."  Of  the  si.x-string 
quartets  dedicated  by  him  to  Ilaj-dn,  he  said:  "I  strove  to  do 
something  which  should  do  honor  to  my  master,  Haydn,  and  to 
myself."  He  certaiidy  did  not  strive  in  vain,  for  to  this  day 
a  finished  performance  of  one  of  these  quartets  begets  in  all 


THE  GUOWTII  OF  MUSIC.  98 

true  musicians  a  feeling  of  reverence  for  both  composer  and 
teacher. 

Mozart  composed  many  Masses  and  other  sacred  choral 
works,  but  in  this  field  of  composition  he  was  more  flattered 
by  imitation  than  any  other  composer  has  ever  been,  since 
works  are  published  bearing  his  name  wliich  it  is  well  known 
he  never  wrote.  Tlie  popular  "Twelfth  Mass"  is  generally 
admitted  to  be  spurious,  wliilc  doubts  exist  as  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  13, 16, 17,  and  18,  though  all  are  attributed 
to  jVIozart. 

The  marvellously  beautiful  "Requiem"  was  commenced  only 
a  short  time  before  Mozart  died.  Although  commissioned  to 
write  it  by  an  Austrian  count,  he  labored  nnder  the  belief  that 
it  would  be  his  own  death-song.  The  work  was  laid  aside  for 
tl»e  purpose  of  writing  his  opera,  "La  Clemenza  di  Tito,"  and 
also  for  finishing  "  Die  Zauberfiole";  after  accomplishing  this, 
his  physical  powers  failed,  and  he  took  to  his  bed. 

His  last  hours  were  spent  over  the  manuscript  of  his  unfin- 
ished "  Requiem,"  which  he  confided  to  the  care  of  his  pupil 
Siissmayr,  with  such  directions  as  he  was  able  to  give  for  its 
completion.  Into  this  sacred  work  tiie  deep  devotional  spirit 
of  the  dying  musician  entered,  and  thougli  this  was  in  part 
through  the  honored  medium,  Siissmayr,  the  "Requiem" 
stands  as  a  noble  monument  to  tlie  genius  of  the  immortal 
Mozart. 

Upon  a  page  of  Franz  Schubert's  Diary  is  found  the  follow- 
ing generous  tribute  to  the  influence  of  Alozart's  music: 

"Thus  l)eaiitiful  impres.sion8  remain  in  the  soul,  which  arc  soothing  to  our 
existiMico,  and  which  neither  time  nor  events  can  ellace.  In  the  darknc^.s  of  our 
life  thoy  throw  a  light,  briglit,  and  bcautil'iil  future,  wliich  (ills  u.s  with  fervent 
hope.  ()  Mozart!  Immortal  Mozart!  How  many,  yea,  innumer.iblo  impres- 
sions of  a  brighter  and  better  world  have  you  imprinted  on  our  souls!" 

Mozart  liad,  at  the  age  of  twenty  -  si.\,  married  Constance 
Weber,  a  sister  of  Aloysia  Weber,  witli  whom  he  had  fallen  in 
love  si.x  years  before.  lie  died  in  1791,  at  tlie  age  of  thirty-five, 
before  even  the  little  world  around  him  knew  how  great  a  work 
he  had  accomplished.  Tiie  influence  of  it  had,  however,  al- 
ready touched  the  mighty  Beethoven,  since  when  who  can  tell 
its  bounds? 


94  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Ludwig  von  Beethoven  had  just  reached  his  tweiity-fir^t 
year  when  Mozart  died,  he  having  been  born  at  Bonn  in  1770. 
He  inherited  a  rough,  rugged  nature  from  liis  father,  whicli, 
singularly  enough,  music  did  not  refine  in  after-years.  The 
de;.fness  from  which  he  suffered  may  have  had  something  to 
do  with  this,  for  with  sucli  an  afHiclion  lie  naturally  shrank 
from  society  and  its  customs. 

At  eight  yeais  of  age  he  manifested  great  skill  at  the  piano, 
the  fugues  of  Bach  being  even  then  within  liis  power.  Sonatas 
of  his  own  composition  have  survived  which  show  that  at 
thirteen  years  of  age  the  creative  faculty  also  was  possessed  by 
him  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 

When  fifteen  years  old  Beethoven  was  appointed  assistant 
organist  to  the  Electoral  Chapel,  through  the  patronage  of 
Count  Waldstein,  to  whom  in  after-years  Beethoven  dedicated 
his  noble  C  major  sonata  for  the  piano. 

A  meeting  with  Iluydn  aroused  within  young  Beethoven  the 
desire  to  study  under  this  great  master,  and  having  obtained 
permission  from  the  Elector,  he  took  up  liis  residence  in  Vienna 
at  about  the  age  of  twenty-two.  Here  he  wrote  his  early  so- 
natas, dedicating  them  to  his  master,  Joseph  Haydn.  But  his 
fiery,  independent  spirit  soon  rebelled  against  the  genial  tutor's 
rule,  and,  after  a  quarrel,  Beetlioven  discontinued  his  les.sons 
with  Haydn,  expressing  himself  in  his  impetuous  manner  as 
having  been  in  no  way  benefited  by  them. 
■  He  next  studied  under  Albrechtsberger,  the  great  master  of 
counterpoint  and  fugue,  who  was  born  in  1736,  four  j'cars  after 
Haydn,  and  Avho  died  in  1809,  which  was  also  the  year  of 
Haydn's  death. 

Altliongh  many  art  patrons  in  the  best  society  soon  discov- 
ered Beeilioven's  wondrous  gifts,  and  were  ready  in  any  and 
every  way  to  show  their  friendship,  he  was  never  really  at 
home  among  his  rich  admirers.  Beethoven  was  "  not  to  the 
manner  born,"  and  a  rough-and-tumble  life  in  lodgings,  with  a 
chang(!  of  quarters  whenever  anything  interfered  with  his  lib- 
erty of  action,  was  wJiat  suited  him  best.  The  direst  of  con- 
fusion reigned  wherever  Beetlioven  vdH  "at  home,"  and  even 
out  his  awkwardness  at  table  was  a  constant  source  of  worry 
to  the  guests  around  him. 

How  such  a  nature  could  have  held  within  it  the  musical 


THE  GROWTH   OF  MUSIC.  95 

spirit  that  breathed  forth  melody  so  full  of  heavenly  calm  is 
indeed  a  mystery!  From  Beethoven  the  man  \\g  siiould  as 
little  expect  to  hear  the  strains  of  an  air  like  that  in  the  Kreutzer 
Sonata  as  Ave  should  expect  to  hear  the  song  of  the  nightingale 
from  an  eagle. 

In  Beetiioven  we  get  everything  that  music  can  express: 
tenderness  and  passion,  calm  and  storm,  love  and  hatred,  tragedy 
and  comedy.  Music,  with  Beethoven,  becomes  much  nearer 
perfect  as  a  language  of  feelings  than  liiiherto  it  had  been,  and 
beyond  his  powers  of  expression  in  this  direction  it  would 
seem  impossible  to  go.  He  himself  migiit  have  gone  further 
had  he  not  been  deprived  of  the  very  sense  through  which  he 
expressed  himself  to  others, a  deprivation  which,  he  says,  "In 
any  other  profession  might  be  more  tolerable;  but  in  mine 
such  a  condition  is  truly  frightfid." 

In  speaking  of  his  mtu'vellous  sonatas  for  piano  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  Beethoven  had  the  perfected  piano  to  com- 
pose for.  In  this  form  of  composition  he  advanced  with  the 
advance  of  the  instrument.  Up  to  his  Op.  49  lie  is  restricted 
m  compass  to  F  above  the  third  added  line  of  the  treble  clef, 
while  in  his  next  Sonata,  Op.  53,  we  find  him  soaring  four 
notes  higher.  Similarly  in  later  sonatas  we  perceive  the  ex- 
tension in  the  compass  of  the  piano  downward;  for  while  pre- 
viously this  had  been  limited  to  F  on  tin;  fourth  line  below  the 
bass  clef,  in  the  great  Bb  Sonata,  Op.  lOG,  we  find  notes  written 
as  low  as  C  below  the  fifth  added  line.  In  other  ways  besides 
in  extension  of  compass,  inventors  and  manufacturers  were 
doing  their  utmost  for  the  piano  as  an  instrument.  AVith  an 
action  which  rendered  the  touch  almost  perfect,  with  a  system 
of  stringing  which  produced  a  full  tone  previously  unknown 
(with  dampers  which  did  their  work),  Avith  a  sustaining  pedal 
as  well  as  a  soft  iH'dal,  the  possibilities  of  effect  were  increased 
immensely,  and  Beethoven  seems  in  his  sonatas  to  have  seized 
upon  them  all.  By  these  compositions  he  won  for  the  piano  a 
world-wide  popularity,  and  for  himself  favor  and  renown 
greater  far  and  more  wide-reaching  than  that  which  resulted 
from  even  his  finer  works.  The  beauty  and  grandeur  of  his 
more  important  sonatas,  such  as  the  so-called  "Moonlight," 
tile  Bb  "  Grosse  Sonata  fUr  das  Hammer  Klavier,"  and  the 
"  Appassionata,"  have  never  been  e(iualle(l  in  any  compositions 


96  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

for  the  piano;  and  great  indeed  will  be  tlie  revelation  wiien 
anything  finer  is  seen. 

In  his  symphonies  Beethoven  accomplished  for  the  orchestra 
what  in  his  sonatas  he  had  accomplished  for  the  piano.  They 
mark  the  higliest  point  attainable  by  human  skill  in  this  direc- 
tion. They  are  like  a  range  of  glorious  mountains,  the  highest 
peak  of  Avhich  is  found  in  the  ninth  and  last.  In  this,  the 
"Choral  "  symphony,  we  are  uplifted  to  heights  beyond  which 
it  would  seem  impossible  for  the  human  soul  to  soar.  Voices 
here  combine  with  instruments  in  the  achievement  of  the  com- 
poser's noble  purpose.  In  the  final  movement,  the  text  of 
which  is  Schiller's  "F^;ude  Schoner  Gotterfunken,"  we  have 
some  of  the  most  wonderful  writing  which  Beethoven  has 
given  us,  a  joyous  exaltation  of  spirit  marking  the  whole.  To 
follow  a  performance  of  it  intelligently  requires  a  musical 
mind  of  no  ordinary  culture;  to  liave  created  it,  the  mind 
must  have  received  a  light  from  Heaven  such  as  is  not  often 
bestowed  on  mortal  man. 

Chief  among  Beethoven's  other  compositions  are:  two  masses, 
that  in  D  being  regarded  as  his  greatest  choral  work ;  a  can-' 
tala,  "Tlie  Glorious  Moment"  or  "Praise  of  Harmony";  an 
opera,  "Fidelio";  an  oratorio,  "The  Mount  of  Olives";  the 
"Prometheus"  music:  nine  overtures,  a  concerto  for  violin, 
and  five  concertos  for  piano  with  orchestral  accompaniment; 
ten  sonatas  for  piano  and  violin,  among  them  the  favorite  and 
ever-popular  "  Kreutzer";  the  celebrated  septet  for  strings  and 
wind;  sestets  and  octets;  four  quintets  and  sixteen  quartets  for 
strings;  eight  trios  for  piano  and  strings;  a  great  number  of 
piano  pieces,  including  the  lovely  andante  in  F,  which  equals 
in  importance  many  of  iiis  sonatas;  and  about  seventy  songs, 
the  most  beautiful  of  which  is  "Adelaide." 

Beethoven  ennobled  the  sonata,  .symphony,  and  quartet  forms 
to  a  wonderful  degree;  and  wlien  we  reflect  that  lie  lived  but 
eighteen  years  after  Ilaydn,  liis  advance  upon  that  compo.ser 
and  Mozart  appears  the  more  extraordinary.  Although  his 
life  was  a  bitter  struggle,  at  one  time  against  poverty,  at  an- 
other against  uncharitable  relatives,  and  again  against  liie  awful 
affliction  of  absolute  deafness,  the  musical  soul  within  Avas  at 
all  times  uiuuflied,  and  was  only  rendered  the  more  capable  of 
giving  forlh  ihought  of  rich  and  varied  beauty  by  the  storm 


THE   GKOWTH   OF  MUSIC.  97 

and  stress  without.  He  enjoyed  no  home  corafu.ts,  and  from 
the  time  of  liis  motlier's  death  he  does  not  seem  to  have  ever 
come  witliin  range  of  the  tender  influence  of  woman. 

Beethoven  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight,  in  tlie  year  1837,  and 
was  buried  in  Vienna,  where  lie  liad  so  long  lived,  thousands 
of  people  attending  the  funeral  to  do  honor  to  the  marvellous 
genius  of  the  deceased  composer. 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber  had  died  ten  months  before  this, 
his  life  having  been  shorter  by  seventeen  years  than  that  of 
his  great  contemporary.  He  was  born  in  the  town  of  Eutin, 
Holsteiu,  in  the  year  1786,  and  in  early  life  displaj^ed  a  love 
of  both  the  arts  of  painting  and  music.  Although  the  boy's 
father  was  a  musician,  he  was  of  a  restless,  roving  nature;  and 
young  Weber  did  not  in  early  life  get  any  very  settled,  thorough 
musical  training.  When  eleven  years  old,  his  father  having 
taken  up  his  abode  in  Salzburg  as  manager  of  the  theatre,  the 
boy  was  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Michael  Haydn,  a  brother 
of  the  celebrated  composer.  In  1803  another  move  brought 
young  Weber  to  Vienna,  where  he  became  tlie  pupil  of  the 
Abbe  Vogler,  witli  whom  for  two  years  he  pursued  a  diligent 
course  of  study.  He  had  already  composed  an  opera,  entitled 
"Das  Waldmildchen,"  which  had  been  represented  with  great 
success  in  Vienna.  Other  works  quickly  followed,  but  for  a 
long  time  nothing  came  from  his  pen  which  gave  promise  of 
the  great  things  he  proved  himself  capable  of  in  his  maturer 
years. 

After  a  period  of  wandering,  procuring  his  living  in  a  desul- 
tory manner,  giving  concerts  or  playing  at  them  in  one  place 
and  another,  NVeber  took  up  his  residence  in  Dresden,  where 
lie  had  been  appointed  Kapell-Meister,  with  the  understanding 
that  he  should  establish  German  opera  in  that  capital.  Hav- 
ing gathered  up  his  powers  for  nobler  effort  in  tlie  field  of 
('om[)osilion,  he  here  wrote  his  most  celebrated  opera,"  Der 
Freischiitz,"  which  rapidly  won  for  iiiin  fame  in  his  own  and 
other  lands.  Tlie  magnificent  overture,  the  tender  beauty  in 
parts  allotted  to  Agatha,  the  fierce  malignance  of  (Caspar's 
songs,  the  weird,  wild  music  of  the  sensational  "  Wolf's  Glen  " 
.scene,  and  the  gay  revelry  of  the  vilbigers  or  huntsmen  in  the 
choruses,  all  compelled  admiration  alike  for  the  powers  of  the 
7 


98  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

composer  and  for  the  wonderful  resources  of  musical  art 
which  they  revealed. 

"Preciosa,"  a  light  opera,  had  preceded  "Der  FreiscliUlz," 
and  "Euryanthe"  and  "Oberon,"  each  a  great  worii,  were 
"written  after  it,  but  these  did  not  achieve  the  success  the  com- 
poser had  anticipated  for  them. 

Weber  wrote  a  great  deal  of  pianoforte  music,  his  sonatas 
for  which  instrument  contain  much  that  is  beautiful,  though 
in  strength  and  unity  of  purpose  they  full  far  below  those  of 
the  Immortal  Beethoven.  The  rondo  of  No.  1,  C  major,  known 
as  "II  moto  continuo,"  is  one  of  the  mo.st  popular  movements 
from  tlie  sonatas,  wliile  among  his  other  pieces  the  "Grand 
polonaise  brillantc"  and  "Invitation  pour  la  valse  "  are  favor- 
ites with  pianists  everywhere. 

Previous  to  taking  up  his  abode  in  Dresden,  Weber  had  mar- 
ried Karolina  Brandt,  he  bein^  then  thirty  years  old.  lie  was 
not  of  strong  constitution,  and,  like  many  another  zealous  com- 
poser, he  allowed  his  work  to  draw  too  largely  upon  his  pli3'S- 
ical  powers.  In  1826  Weber  went  to  London,  where  he  was 
received  with  enthusiasm,  and  where  he  directed  twelve  repre- 
sentations of  his  last  opera,  "Oberon."  He  never  returned  to 
his  native  land.  Ill-health  overtaking  him,  he  died  at  tlie  age 
of  forty,  on  June  5,  1836,  at  the  liouse  of  his  host,  Sir  George 
Smart.  He  was  buried  in  the  Catiiolic  Chnpcl,  Moonsfiehis, 
London,  but  in  1844  the  remains  were  removed  to  Dresden, 
where  they  found  their  final  and  more  fitting  resting-place. 

At  the  time  of  Beethoven's  death  most  of  tlie  musicians 
whose  work  since  his  time  has  greatly  influenced  musical  art 
were  already  living,  as  the  following  table  will  sliow: 

Ago  when 

Name                                                         Born  Bcelhoven  Died 

Spohr 1784  43 

Ros.sini 1792  35 

Meyerbeer 1794  33 

Scliubert 1797  30 

Mendelssohn 1809  18 

Chopin 1810  17 

Schumann 1810  17 

Liszt 1811  IG 

Warner 1813  14 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  99 

Age  when 
Name  Born      Beethoven  Died 

G.  A.  Macfarren 1813  14 

Verdi 1814  13 

Sterndale  Bennett 1816  11 

Gounod 1818     .  9 

Tlie  life-work  of  these  great  musicians  has  enriched  the  art 
of  music  to  a  marvellous  extent,  while  tlirough  the  strong  in- 
dividuality of  each  it  has  been  developed  in  astonishingly  va- 
ried fashion. 

Ludwig  Spohr,  the  son  of  a  physician,  was  born  in  Bruns- 
wick in  1784,  fourteen  years  after  the  birth  of  Beethoven.  In 
early  life  his  great  musical  abilities  won  for  him  the  favor  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  in  whose  chapel  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment when  sixteen  years  old.  Spohr  excelled  as  a  per- 
former upon  the  violin,  for  which  instrument  he  wrote,  at  the 
age  just  mentioned,  a  concerto  (his  Op.  1),  dedicating  it  to  the 
duke,  appreciation  of  who.se  favor  he  sought  in  this  manner 
to  signalize.  lie  was  afterwards  appointed  first  violinist  in 
the  ducal  chapel  orchestra. 

When  twenty-two  years  old  Spohr  married  Doretta  Schei- 
dler,  who  is  spoken  of  as  an  accomplished  harpist  and  pianist. 
The  composer  was  then  Kapell-Meister  at  Gotha,  and  while 
holding  this  post  he  engaged  in  several  successful  concert 
tours,  in  which  he  was  accompanied  by  his  wife. 

When  twenty-eight  years  old  Spohr  was  offered  the  appoint- 
ment of  choir-master  at  the  Theater  an  der  Wien,  which  lie 
accepted  and  held  for  three  years,  composing  meantime  his 
opera  "Faust."  This  opera  was  not  publicly  performed  iintil 
some  few  years  later  at  Frankfort-on-tlie-^lain,  where  another 
appointment,  that  of  Kapell-Meister,  had  been  accepted  by 
Spohr.  Here  the  opera  "Zemir  und  Azor"  was  composed, 
one  number  of  which,  the  air  "Rose  softly  blooming"  being 
alone  greatly  poi)ular  at  the  present  time. 

The  fame  of  the  composer  having  reached  England,  Spohr 
was  invited  by  the  Philharmonic  Society  to  conduct  a  series  of 
concerts  in  London,  for  which  purpose  he  visited  that  city 
in  1830,  and  was  received  as  composer,  conductor,  and  per- 
former alike  with  liearticst  approbation. 


100  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC, 

His  last  appointmcut  as  Kapell-Meister  was  at  Cassel,  where 
he  labored  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight  until  the  time  of  his  death. 
Here  he  composed  his  operas  "  Pietro  von  Albano,"  "The 
Crusaders,"  and  "  Jessonda,"  works  which  shared  the  fate  of 
other  great  compositions  of  the  dramma  per  muHica  school,  re- 
taining their  popularity  for  a  period  far  too  brief,  considering 
their  worth  from  the  musical  standpoint.  The  overture  of 
"Jessonda"  still  holds  a  place  in  concert  programmes,  and  is 
a  noble  example  of  orchestral  writing. 

Spohr  is  more  widely  known  as  a  composer  by  his  sacred 
choral  Avorks,  notably  by  "The  Last  Judgment,"  and  '"Calvary," 
in  which  oratorios  we  have  a  devotional  treatment  of  solemn 
subjects,  and  an  exquisite  richness  of  theme,  which,  added  to 
their  other  qualities,  have  won  for  them  a  place  in  our  cathe- 
drals and  churches  second  only  to  Bach's  "Passion"  oratorios 
in  the  esteem  of  music-loving  worshippers. 

The  short  sacred  cantatas,  "  God  Thou  art  Great"  and  "The 
Christian's  Prayer,"  and  the  chorus,  "How  lovely  are  Thy 
dwellings  fair,"  and  the  "Hymn  to  St.  Cecilia,"  are  other 
choral  works  by  Spohr,  the  first-named  work  having  become  a 
favorite  with  clioral  societies  everywhere. 

Chief  among  the  symphonies  by  Spohr  is  the  one  known  as 
"The  Power  of  Sound,"  in  which  is  described  the  awaken- 
ing of  sound  in  nature,  tlie  cradle  song,  the  dance,  the  march 
of  warriors,  a  praj^er  for  their  success,  tlieir  victoiious  return, 
and  a  suggestion,  through  a  funeral  chant,  of  the  thought 
that  man  is  accompanied  by  music  from  tlie  cradle  to  the 
grave. 

Spohr  wrote  fifteen  violin  concertos,  thirty  -  three  string 
quartets,  four  double- quartets,  seven  quintets,  a  sextet,  an 
octet,  a  nonet  for  strings  and  wind,  besides  many  other  less 
important  works.  His  style  differs  from  that  of  other  com- 
posers chiefly  in  his  constant  employment  of  chromatic  pro- 
gressions in  all  parts  of  his  composition,  and  also  in  his  fond- 
ness for  enharmonic  clianges.  Through  these  means  his  power 
of  producing  beautiful  effects  has  not  been  equalled  by  any 
other  composer,  though  many  have  imitated  his  style. 

Spohr  was  twice  married.  He  continued  in  Cassel  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  in  the  year  1859,  he  having 
lived  to  be  seventy-flve  years  old. 


THE  GROWTH  Oi"  ^^iSCi!.   '.  ' ',     ,iQi\ 


Gioacchino  Rossini  was  bovn- at  Pcsaro  in  1793.  His  fa- 
ther was  one  of  a  band  of  st'-ollin'^  plajers  antl  •  TSiu?iciiins; 
and  as  young  Rossini  possessed  a  gcjod  vbice.'dnd  dJsplaJ'fed' 
ability  also  as  an  instrumentalist,  he  was  allowed,  when  but 
ten  years  old,  to  accompany  the  troop.  He  was  soon  fired 
with  the  ambition  to  compose  for  the  stage,  and  when  but 
sixteen  he  tired  of  study,  and  turned  with  boyish  impetuosity 
to  tlie  gratification  of  his  wish. 

It  was  not  until  Rossini  was  twenty-one  years  old  that  he 
achieved  anything  like  success  in  the  composition  and  pro- 
duction of  opera.  Then,  liowever,  "  Tancredi,"  which  was 
produced  at  the  Venice  carnival  in  1813,  won  for  him  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  glory  among  his  countrymen.  The  me- 
lodiousness of  this  work  moved  the  people  to  unbounded  en- 
thusiasm, and  established  for  Rossini  a  reputation  as  a  composer 
of  opera  second  to  none  in  Italy.  Having  thus  reached  the 
height  of  his  ambition  at  once,  there  is  very  little  to  chronicle 
in  regard  to  Rossini's  life-work  besides  the  composition  of 
opera  after  opera  of  varying  merit,  and  their  production  with 
varying  success. 

After  "Tancredi"  came  "  Italiana  in  Algeri,"  "II  Turco  in 
Italia,"  "II  Barbiere  di  Seveglia,"  "Otello,"  "  Cenerentola," 
and  "La  Gazza  Ladra,"  in  eacli  of  which  Rossini  strove  for 
nothing  higher  than  to  please  the  people,  as  in  his  first  work  he 
had  done. 

In  "JMose  in  Egitto,"  an  opera  composed  for  performance 
during  Lent,  we  have  Avriting  of  a  superior  kind,  and  this 
work,  never  satisfactory  upon  the  stage,  has  been  given  with- 
out action  bj'  some  of  the  great  choral  societies  in  London, 
thereby  winning  for  it  much  more  favor  than  it  ever  gained 
as  an  opera. 

"  Armicia,"  "  Eriniona,"  "  La  Donna  del  Lago"  (founded  on 
Sir  "Walter  Scott's  "Lady  of  the  Lake"),  "  Semiramide,"  and 
"Zelmira"  are  other  well-known  operas  by  Ro.'Jsini;  but  his 
last  work  for  the  stage,  "Guillaume  Tell,"  outrivals  them  all 
in  musical  worth,  its  overture  being  the  most  interesting  of  all 
his  orchestral  compositions. 

Rossini  left  Italy  in  his  thirty-second  year;  and  having  paid 
a  short  visit  to  England,  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Paris.  Here 
it  was  he  composed  and  produced  "Guillaume  Tell,"  after 


102  'GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

■whicli_,  although  biirely  forl!^  years  old,  be  abandoned  opera 
■'-Wfitins  ftHo^ethcr.'  '.    .' 

"  Rossini's  one  great  "effort  in  the  field  of  sacred  composition 
is  his  setting  of  ihe  "  Stabat  Mater,"  a  work  which  has  enjoyed 
a  large  amount  of  popularity.  This,  a  cantata,  "Joan  of  Arc," 
and  the  three  choruses  for  female  voices,  "Failh,"  "Hope," 
and  "Charity,"  were  tlie  only  works  composed  by  Rossini  dur- 
ing the  hitler  half  of  his  life.  He  died  in  Paris  at  the  age  of 
seventy-six,  in  the  year  1868. 

Giacomo  Meyerbeer  was  born  in  Berlin  in  the  j'ear  1794. 
His  parents  were  wealthy,  and  as  in  early  life  his  musical  gifts 
were  revealed  by  performances  upon  the  piano,  he  was,  so  soon 
as  his  education  could  be  commenced,  committed  to  the  care 
of  distinguished  musicians.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  studied — 
together  with  Weber,  who  was  a  few  years  his  senior — under  the 
Abbe  Vogler,  in  Darmstadt.  His  earliest  compositions  were 
sacred  works, "  God  and  Nature"  and  "Jephtha's  Vow,"  but 
his  attention  was  soon  turned  to  opera,  in  which,  as  with  Ros- 
sini, his  successes  as  a  composer  were  to  be  gained.  These,  too, 
were  to  be  first  gained  in  the  land  of  Rossini,  for,  at  the  advice 
of  Salieri,  Meyerbeer  had  left  Germany  in  his  early  manhood, 
to  take  up  his  abode  in  Italy.  Here  he  produced  his  operas 
"Emma  di  Resburgo"  and  "II  Crociato  in  Egitto,"  both  of 
which  gained  for  him  considerable  renown. 

]\Ieyerbcer's  influence  is  chiefly  felt  in  the  realm  of  grand 
opera,  the  most  important  of  his  contributions  to  this  form  of 
musical  art  being  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  "  Les  Huguenots,"  "  Le 
Prophete,"  and  "L'Africaiue."  He  wrote,  besides  these,  many 
other  operas,  and  also  some  sacred  choral  works,  including  a 
setting  of  the  "  Lord's  Prayer"  and  the  "  Ninety-first  Psalm." 

IMeyerbeer  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy,  and  was  distinguished 
throughout  his  career  alike  for  his  fine  character  and  his  great 
musical  powers.  3Iany  honors  were  conferred  upon  him  during 
his  lifetime,  one  of  which  was  the  appointment  of  Kapell-Meister 
to  the  King  of  Prussia.     His  death  occurred  in  the  year  1864. 

Franz  Schubert,  born  1797,  was  the  son  of  a  village  school- 
master ill  the  parish  of  Liehenlhal,  Vienna.  So  extraordinary 
a  genius  was  little  Franz,  that,  musically  speaking,  he  had  no 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  103 

childhood.  He  thought  and  understood  from  his  earliest  j'ears 
almost  as  a  man.  At  eleven  years  of  age  he  iiad  acquired  all 
tlie  musical  knowledge  witliin  his  reach,  and  was  able  to  play 
Avell  upon  the  violin  and  piano.  From  this  time  until  he  was 
sixteen  he  was  a  chorister  in  the  imperial  cliapel,  during  vvhicii 
time  he  had  tlie  benefit  of  instruction  from  Salieri.  Beyond 
this  his  musical  education  was  not  continued  with  that 
thoroughness  which  his  talent  demanded.  His  limited  means 
had  something  to  do  with  this,  though  a  singular  disposition, 
and  a  shy,  retiring  nature  kept  him  from  making  the  best  use 
of  opportunities  for  developing  liis  musical  powers.  His  zeal 
for  composition  was  excessive,  and  as  though  moved  by  a  pre- 
monition of  tlie  brevity  of  his  allotted  time  for  work,  he  ap- 
plied himself  with  tremendous  earnestness  to  the  task  of  writ- 
ing what  was  in  him. 

Schubert  composed  about  six  hundred  songs,  and  in  tliese 
his  wonderful  fertility  of  idea  and  richness  of  imagination  is 
manifested.  Each  song  is  a  musical  embodiment  of  the  spirit 
of  the  words — in  this  passion,  in  tliat  tenderest  emotion,  no  two 
themes  alike,  and  yet  all  flowing  from  his  pen  as  thougli  witli- 
out  the  slightest  mental  effort.  His  greatest  song,  "The  Erl- 
King,"  which  few  can  play  as  it  sliould  be  played,  and  fewer 
still  can  sing,  was  composed  in  a  few  minutes.  The  lovely 
"Serenade"  was  written  on  a  scrap  of  waste -paper  while 
Schubert  with  some  friends  was  watching  a  game  of  skittles. 
It  is  said  of  liim  tliat  "  he  did  not  in  the  least  trouble  himself 
as  to  whether  the  produ(;ti()ns  of  his  exui)erant  imagination 
awakened  powerful  sympathies  in  the  hearts  of  others.  He 
sang,  simply  because  he  could  not  help  it  —  because  all  his 
thoughts  and  feelings,  iill  the  rays  of  his  existence,  were  con- 
centrated in  music  as  in  one  connnon  focus." 

Schubert  wrote  with  equal  facility  for  tlie  orchestra,  and  his 
nine  symphonies  (one  untinislied)  have  since  his  death  made 
him  famous  among  the  great  composers  in  this  field  of  music. 
The  great  C  major  symphony,  penned  from  beginning  to  end 
without  any  sign  of  hesitancy  of  tliought,  is  a  marvel  of  skill, 
beauty,  and  power.  His  masses  are  also  full  of  rich  treatment 
for  instruments,  while  tlie  vocal  parts  abound  wiili  graceful 
themes,  and  the  works  throughout  are  instinct  with  true  re- 
ligious feeling. 


104  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Schubert's  music  for  the  piano  is  marked  by  the  same  grace 
and  charm  of  theme  which  characterize  his  other  compositions, 
liis  impromptus  being  the  most  widely  vakied  and  appre- 
ciated by  lovers  of  this  instrument.  His  contributions  to 
chamber  -  music  include  quartets,  a  quintet,  and  an  octet,  in 
most  of  which  his  powers  are  revealed  in  their  highest  degree. 

Although  Schubert  wrote  a  number  of  operas,  none  have  be- 
come famous  ;  lliey  were  mostly  the  works  of  his  earlier  years, 
and  their  failure  was  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  composer's 
want  of  acquaintance  with  the  needs  of  the  stage.  By  the 
quiet  method  of  his  life,  as  also  by  his  undemonstrative  nature, 
he  was  unfitted  for  this  form  of  composition. 

Schubert  left  several  operas  unfinished,  and  had  he  but  lived 
a  life  of  ordinary'  span,  judging  by  wliat  he  had  done,  and  by 
his  own  expressed  resolution  in  regard  to  his  future  work,  we 
know  that  richer  treasures  would  have  been  bequeathed  to  us 
than  even  those  we  liave. 

Schubert  enjoyed  for  a  time  the  patronage  of  the  Esterhazy 
family,  with  whom  he  served  as  Kammer-Musikus,  as  Haydn 
had  served  a  former  branch  of  the  family  before  him,  and  be- 
yond this  few  honors  fell  to  his  lot  in  life.  He  pa.ssed  his  last 
days  where  he  had  spent  almost  all  his  life,  in  the  quiet  sub- 
urban home  near  Vienna.  Beethoven  and  he  passed  each  other 
in  the  street  without  recognition.  Only  when  the  older  musi- 
cian lay  dying  did  the  knowledge  of  Schubert's  work  roach 
him.  'Then  we  are  told  that  Schubert  came  to  him,  and  was 
permitted  to  see  him.  Beethoven  was  too  weak  for  words, 
and  Schubert,  after  gazing  at  him  for  some  moments  in  silence, 
suddenly  burst  into  tears,  and,  turning  away,  left  the  room. 

A  year  and  a  half  from  the  time  Beethoven  died,  Schubert 
himself  passed  away,  he  having  only  reached  the  age  of  thirty- 
one  years.    The  dale  of  his  death  is  given  as  November  19, 1828. 

Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  was  born  at  Plamburg  in 
the  year  1809.  His  life,  like  Schubert's,  was  brief,  though  in 
other  respects  it  was  as  unlike  as  it  could  well  be.  His  parents 
were  wealthy  and  influential,  possessing  intellectual  gifts  which 
attracted  to  their  home  many  great  thinkers,  writers,  and 
musicians.  In  such  an  atmosphere  young  Mendelssohn  grew 
up,  with  advantages  in  companionship  and  education  which  do 


THE  GROWTH  OP  MUSIC.  105 

not  of  len  fall  to  the  lot  of  genius.  Together  with  his  sister  Fan- 
ny he  received  his  earliest  music-lessons  from  his  motlicr.  In 
Berlin,  whilherthe  Mendelssohn  family  had  moved  in  1812,  his 
musical  education  was  continued  by  Berger,  piano,  and  Zelter, 
composition.  By  the  time  he  was  twelve  years  old  he  had  seen 
more  of  tiie  world  than  Schubert  saw  in  all  his  life.  Schubert 
had  sent  his  maguiticent  setting  of  the  "  Erl  King"  and  other 
poems  of  Goethe  to  that  great  poet,  who  never  even  acknowl- 
edged them.  When  but  thirteen  Mendelssohn  was  an  honored 
guest  in  Goethe's  house.  Sir  Jules  Benedict,  Moscheles,  and 
Cherubini  had  all,  by  the  lime  he  was  fifteen,  pronounced  him  to 
he  a  genius  of  wonderful  promise,  while  by  the  time  he  was  eigh- 
teen his  powers  as  a  composer  were  making  him  widely  famous. 

Mendelssohn's  greatest  successes  were  achieved  through  his 
choral  works,  notably  the  orotorio  "  Elijah,"  and  the  sacred  sin- 
fonia  cantata  "Lobgesang."  In  these  works  Mendelssohn  in- 
vested tlie  chorus  with  new  life,  and  in  Enghmd,  where  the 
love  of  choral  music  has  always  been  strong,  and  where  its 
practice  and  performance  are  so  delighted  in,  "Elijah  "  was 
welcomed  with  an  enthusiasm  that  was  almost  unbounded. 
Since  its  first  performance  at  Birmingham  in  184G,  under  the 
composer's  own  direction,  it  has  ranked  next  in  popularity  to 
Handel's  "Messiah,"  and  to  this  day  it  commands  a  place  in 
the  programmes  of  all  our  great  festivals. 

Following  upon  a  performance  of  "Elijah"  in  London  the 
ensuing  year  by  command  of  the  Queen,  this  tribute  to  the 
composer  was  penned  by  the  late  Prince  Consort : 

"To  the  noble  artist  who,  surrounded  by  the  Baal  worship 
of  corrupted  art,  has  been  able  by  his  genius  and  science  to  pre- 
serve faithfully,  like  another  Elijah,  the  worship  of  true  art, 
and  once  more  to  accustom  our  ears,  lost  in  the  whirl  of  an 
empty  play  of  sounds,  to  the  pure  notes  of  expressive  composi- 
tion and  legitimate  harmony. 

"  To  the  great  master  who  makes  us  con.scious  of  the  unity 
of  his  conception  through  the  whole  maze  of  his  creation,  from 
the  soft  whispering  to  the  mighty  raging  of  the  elements. 

"  Written  in  token  of  grateful  remembrance  by 

*'  At  BFTIT  " 

*'  BuckiDgUam  Palace,  April  2ith,  1847." 


106  OUroE  TO  MUSIC. 

The  "Hymn  of  Praise"  ( Lobges.ing),  although  composed 
six  years  before  "Elijah,"  is  a  work  of  more  advanced  thought 
in  regard  to  its  plan.  The  orchestra  and  chorus  vie  with  each 
other  in  the  magnitude  of  their  share  in  the  tribute  of  praise, 
while  they  combine  in  showing  forth  the  spirit  of  the  work 
through  the  noble  and  inspired  themes  of  the  composer.  Tlie 
continuity  of  its  movement  is  a  feature  especially  commendable 
to  modern  taste.  While  "Elijah"  affords  twenty-four  oppor- 
tunities for  applause,  so  disturbing  to  the  spirit  of  the  true 
musician,  the  "Hymn  of  Praise"  (a  shorter  work,  it  is  true) 
affords  but  seven.  That  audiences  avail  themselves  of  every 
opportunity  thus  afforded  in  either  work  is  a  fault  which  must 
not,  however,  be  laid  to  the  composer,  whose  desire  would  in 
all  probability  be  that  the  spirit  of  the  work  during  its  progress 
should  never  be  disturbed  by  any  such  distracting  sounds. 

Chief  among  Mendelssohn's  other  choral  works  are  his  earliest 
oratorio  "  St.  Paul,"  "As  the  hart  pants"  (42d  Psalm),  "Come 
let  us  sing"  (95lh  Psalm),  "When  Israel  out  of  Eg^'pt  came" 
(114th  Psalm),  "Hear  my  prayer,  O  God"  (soprano  solo  and 
chorus),  with  the  favorite  movement,  "  O  for  the  wings  of  a 
dove,"  "Lord,  how  long  wilt  Thou  forget  me  "  (contralto  solo 
and  chorus),  a  Sacred  Cantata,  "  Lauda  Sion,"  music  to  "Ath- 
alie"  (Racine's  Tragedy),  containing  the  famous  "War  March 
of  the  Priests,"  music  to  "  A  Midsummer -Night's  Dream" 
(Shakespeare's  play),  containing  the  festive  and  universally 
popular  "  Wedding  March,"  music  to  "Antigone"  and  "  (Edi- 
pus  at  Colonos "  (Tragedies  by  Sopliocles),  for  male  voices, 
"First  Walpurgis  Night"  (cantata,  words  from  Goethe),  an 
operetta  "  Son  and  Stranger,"  several  motets,  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  part  songs. 

Mendelssohn  left  unfinished  an  oratorio,  "Christus,"  and  an 
opera,  "  Lorely." 

Among  Mendelssohn's  contributions  to  piano  music  his 
"Songs  Witliout  Words"  are  by  far  the  most  widely  known. 
Although  melody  with  accompaniment  was  no  novel  feature, 
since  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  Vt  ("Moonlight") 
Sonata  is  a  veritable  .song  without  words,  Mendelssohn's  de- 
lightful and  varied  treatment  of  the  song  form  has  added  richly 
to  the  store  of  bright,  short,  and  interesting  pieces  for  the 
piano.     The  "Capriccio"  and  "Scherzo"  are  forms  to  which 


THE  GROWTH  OP   MUSIC.  lOV 

ill  his  other  piano  worlvs  Mendelssohn  contributed  largely,  and 
though  brightness  of  spirit  is  always  found  in  these,  it  is  curious 
to  note  that  tliey  are  for  the  most  part  in  minor  keys.  The 
"Andante  and  Hondo  Capriccioso"  is  perhaps  the  most  pop- 
ular of  all  the  longer  compositions  for  the  piano,  though  his 
•'Variations  Serieuses,"  and  the  preludes  and  fugues  are  much 
more  approved  by  the  thoughtful  musician.  Mendelssohn  also 
wrote  concertos  and  other  lengthy  compositions  for  piano  and 
orchestra,  but  in  none  of  these  are  his  powers  revealed  at  their 
best. 

In  the  sonatas  and  preludes  and  fugues  for  the  organ  we 
have  music  of  a  very  high  order.  There  is  no  movement  in 
tliese  works  that  has  not  met  with  favor  from  organists  and 
lovers  of  organ  music  the  world  over.  They  are  beautiful 
throughout,  and  are  calculated  for  the  display  of  many  excel- 
lent qualities  both  of  the  organ  itself  and  of  the  plaj'er,  which, 
until  these  compositions  appeared,  had  been  unknown. 

The  Violin  Concerto  is  as  much  a  favorite  with  violinists  as 
are  the  organ  sonatas  with  organists.  It  is  one  of  Mendels- 
sohn's happiest  inspirations,  and  there  is  no  living  violinist  who 
does  not  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  so  magniticent  a  composi- 
tion for  the  instrument  he  loves.  Our  greatest  artistes  find 
scope  in  it  for  the  display  of  their  exceptional  powers,  while  it 
is  the  laudal)le  ambition  of  most  violinists  to  attain  to  the  de- 
gree of  ability  which  its  performance  demands.  Mendelssohn's 
symphonies,  overtures,  quartets,  trios,  cannot  here  be  dealt  with 
in  detail.  In  all  his  work  the  same  power,  grace,  and  charm  is 
revealed,  though  it  is  in  his  choral  works  that  his  fullest  force 
and  strongest  individuality  are  to  be  found.  He  shows  extraor- 
dinary sympatliy  with  the  voice,  and  never  misses  the  effect 
he  strives  after  when  using  this  as  the  medium  of  expression. 
The  solos  "  Hear  ye,  Israel,"  for  soprano,  "  O  rest  in  the  Lord," 
for  contralto,  "Then  shall  the  righteous  shine,"  for  tenor,  and 
"  Is  not  His  word  like  a  fire?"  for  baritone,  are  four  notable  ex- 
amples of  this  power,  all  occurring  in  the  one  work,  "Elijah," 
and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  their  equal  in  any  work  of  an- 
other composer.  Tiiey  are  as  perfect  an  embodiment  in  music 
of  the  spirit  of  the  words  as  it  would  seem  possible  to  obtain. 

Among  Mendelssohn's  songs  to  .secular  words,  about  eighty 
in  number,  are  many  gems,  "By  Celia's  Arbor,"  "The  First 


108  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Violet,"  and  "Cradle  Song"  being  some  of  the  most  popular 
of  these.  The  scena  for  soprano  voice,*'  Infelice  "  (not  at  pres- 
ent included  in  the  volume  of  his  songs),  is  one  of  the  finest  of 
his  efforts  in  the  way  of  separate  song,  the  accompaniment 
being  for  a  full  orchestra. 

Mendelssohn  married  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  and  history 
is  loud  in  the  praises  of  the  young  lady  of  his  choice,  who  was 
a  Mademoiselle  Cecilia  Jean-Renaud.  Perfect  happiness  in  his 
liome-life  seems  to  have  been  Mendelssohn's  lot,  though  sadly 
brief  was  its  duration. 

In  1829,  when  he  was  twenty  years  old,  Mendelssohn  visited 
England,  and  at  the  Philharmonic  societies'  concert  appeared  as 
performer  in  the  Mozart  Concerto  for  piano,  and  as  conductor 
and  composer  in  his  own  symphony  in  C  minor.  From  that 
time  until  his  deatli  he  always  foimd  pleasure  in  revisiting  that 
country,  and  for  the  Philharmonic  concerts  in  London,  and  for 
the  musical  festivals  in  Birmingham  he  composed  some  of  his 
greatest  works.  "  Elijah  "  was  composed  for  the  Birmingham 
festival  of  1846,  wliicli  fact  is  in  itself  a  compliment  to  English 
musical  taste,  of  which  they  may  be  justly  proud. 

Mendelssohn  worked  much  beyond  his  strength,  though  his 
passion  for  musical  art  prevented  his  discovery  of  the  fact. 
Whether  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  or  England,  society  and 
music  urged  their  claims  upon  him  at  all  times,  and  he  suffered 
them  to  be  too  exacting,  giving  himself  no  real  rest.  His  buoy- 
ant spirits,  which  so  wonderfully  sustained  him  during  all  his 
hard  work,  received,  however,  a  deep  blow  in  the  deatli  of  his 
sister  Fanny,  whom  he  so  tenderly  loved.  His  cheerfulness 
deserted  him,  and  the  weakness  of  his  constitution  was  at  once 
revealed  in  a  physical  change  which  shocked  all  his  friends. 
In  1847,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty -eight,  Mendelssohn  died. 
In  England  he  was  mourned  not  less  than  in  his  native  land, 
for  wherever  he  had  gone  he  had  won  not  only  great  musical 
esteem,  but  the  truest  personal  affection. 

Robert  Schumann  was  born  in  1810,  a  year  later  than 
Mendelssohn,  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony.  His  father,  a  publisher 
and  bookseller,  was  a  man  of  decided  literary  gifts,  in  which 
respect  his  son  Robert  in  after-j^ears  resembled  him,  though 
while  poetry  had  been  the  father's  theme,  that  of  the  son  was 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MUSIC.  109 

music.  The  early  training  of  young  Schumann,  despite  his 
strong  passion  for  music,  was  directed  towards  fitting  him  for 
a  legal  career,  and  after  studying  at  Zwickau  he  entered,  first 
Leipzig  University  at  eighteen,  and  a  year  afterwards  Heidel- 
berg University  as  a  student  of  law.  The  fire  within  could 
not,  however,  be  quenched,  and  music  was  soon  allowed  to  ex 
ercise  its  entire  sway  over  his  life. 

In  his  eagerness  to  obtain  a  complete  mastery  of  the  key- 
board of  the  piano,  Schumann  unfortunalel}'  adopted  such  severe 
measures  that  he  disabled  his  riglit  hand  permanently,  and  was 
compelled  to  abandon  all  idea  of  becoming  a  public  pianist. 
In  the  rich  powers  of  the  wife  he  afterwards  married — Clara 
Wieck,  daughter  of  his  former  teacher,  who  as  Madame  Schu- 
mann is  recognized  as  one  of  our  foremost  pianists — this  loss 
to  Schumann  himself,  and  to  the  musical  world,  has  been  more 
than  made  good. 

It  is  through  the  piano  that  Schumann's  powers  as  a  com- 
poser have  become  most  widely  known.  His  "Novelletten," 
"  Arabesque,"  "  Carnaval,"  and  "  Humorcske  "  are  full  of  orig- 
inality and  charm;  and  while  in  those  and  his  other  works 
there  is  a  wonderful  depth  of  thought,  he  has  shown  such  a 
tender  regard  for  the  young  as  to  compose  a  set  of  pieces  for 
them,  which,  beginning  with  tlie  simplest  possible  melody,  lead 
by  easy  stages  up  to  the  highest  thoughts  he  was  able  to  ex- 
press. 

Schumann's  greatest  choral  work  is  his  wonderfid  musical 
setting  of  "Faust,"  tiiough  his  shorter  and  easier  cantatas, 
"Paradise  and  the  Peri"  and  "New  Year's  Song,"  are  more 
frequently  heard. 

In  the  realm  of  orchestral  music  Schumann  holds  a  very  high 
place,  his  symphonies  and  overtures  being  marvels  of  grandeur 
and  strengtii.  Not  less  in  chamber-music  is  his  power  felt, 
for  his  string  quartets,  and  his  famous  quintet  for  piano  and 
strings,  are  among  the  higiiest  attractions  to  a  musical  audience 
that  this  kind  of  music  affords.  His  songs,  too,  have  a  great 
hold  upon  all  lovers  of  vocal  music,  particular  favorites  being 
"He  the  best  of  all,"  "Ich  groUe  nicht,"  "  ISIoonlight,"  "O 
Sunny  Beam,"  "  Der  Nussbaum,"  and  "  The  Two  Grenadiers." 

It  is  sad  that  so  great  and  beautiful  a  mind  should  have  had 
its  balance  disturbed  at  a  time  when  it  might  have  been  ex- 


110  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

peeled  to  yield  its  richest  fruit.  But  so  in  Scliumaim's  case  it 
was,  and  after  a  season  of  mental  disorder  lie  was  confined  in 
a  private  asylum  near  Bonn,  where  in  the  year  1856  this  great 
composer  died  at  the  age  of  forty -six. 

"Wilhelm  Richard  "Wagner  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  188^ 
His  career  up  to  manhood  was  one  which  gave  no  definite 
promise  of  the  musical  greatness  he  was  afterwards  to  achieve. 
He  had  acquired  a  great  amount  of  musical  knowledge  by  the 
time  he  was  eighteen,  but  neither  then  nor  in  after-years  did 
he  display  any  particular  ability  as  a  performer.  He  had  lit- 
erary gifts,  and  his  bent  of  mind  led  him  to  exercise  these  in 
the  writing  of  plays  and  tragedies,  while  he  dreamed  of  musical 
settings  of  these  on  the  grandest  possible  scale.  His  projects 
were  ever  great,  and  until  he  reached  mature  manhood  his 
powers  were  unequal  to  the  task  of  carrying  them  out. 

When  tvventj'-three  years  of  age  Wagner  married,  and  for 
many  years  endured  a  hard  struggle  against  adverse  circum- 
stances. The  Magdeburg  Theatre,  where  he  had  been  conduct- 
or, failed,  and  he  moved  to  Berlin,  and  thence  to  K5nigsberg, 
and  Riga,  but  no  success  attended  him  in  either  place.  Paris 
was  tried,  but  here  for  two  years  the  struggle  went  on,  and 
Wagner  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  arranging  operatic  airs 
by  Donizetti  and  others  for  the  piano  and  cornet.  Kot  until 
1842,  when  Wagner  was  thirty  years  old,  did  light  begin  to 
break  through  the  clouds. 

At  the  Court  Theatre,  Dresden,  the  opera  "Rienzi"  proved 
a  success,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  production  the  following 
year  of  Wagner's  second  grand  opera,  "Der  Fliegende  Hol- 
lander," in  which  the  strong  individuality  of  the  composer  as- 
serted itself  in  a  marked  degree.  "  Tannhiluser  "  and  "  Lohen- 
grin "  are,  however,  works  containing  richer  and  riper  thought, 
and  although  upon  the  production  of  these  Wagner  met  with 
more  abuse  than  praise,  the  magnificence  of  his  creations  made 
itself  felt  through  all  opposition,  winning  for  him  the  highest 
place  of  honor  among  composers  of  opera  the  world  over. 

Political  disturbances  drove  Wagner  from  Dresden  in  1849, 
and  after  a  short  stay  in  Paris  he  look  up  his  abode  in  Zurich. 
From  this  time  almost  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  composition  of  a  great  series  of  operatic  works,  the  sub- 


THE  OUOWTH  OF  MUSIC.  Ill 

ject  of  which  he  had  prepared  from  the  legends  of  the  Nibelung 
dwarfs,  of  the  Rhine  maidens,  of  Wotan,  Thor,  Freia,  and  other 
legendary  gods  and  goddesses.  From  these  came  "  Die  Wal- 
kilre,"  "  Siegfried,"  "Tristan  und Isolde,"  "  Die  Meistersinger," 
with  the  great  concluding  work  "Gotterdammerung,"  noble 
monumenis  which  most  truly  speak  fortli  the  greatness  of  Wag- 
ner as  a  composer.  "  Parsifal  "  was  Die  last  music-drama  which 
came  from  Wagner's  pen,  and  this  lie  fliiisiied  in  the  year  1882. 
In  the  latter  part  of  this  year  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Y'"Mce, 
where,  quite  suddenly,  he  died  on  the  13th  of  February,  J883. 

Charles  Marie  Francois  Gounod,  the  most  eminent  French 
composer  since  the  great  group  which  includes  Cherubini, Meyer- 
beer, Auber,  and  llalevy  passed  away,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818, 
and  died  in  St.  Cloud  in  October,  1898,  after  a  long  and  brilliant 
career.  In  opera,  ecclesiastical  music,  and  song,  to  which  he 
gradually  confined  himself,  Gounod  was  a  prolific,  charming, 
and  sometimes  impressive  writer.  Only  one  of  his  numerous 
operas,  however,  has  given  him  his  world-wide  and  enduring 
respect  and  fame — his  admirable  "Faust"  (1859).  This  is  so 
universal  a  favorite  that  it  is  often  termed  the  most  successful 
opera  of  our  time,  preceding  in  sucli  vogue  Wagner's  "Lohen- 
grin" and  Bizet's  "Carmen."  It  embodies  perfectly  the  finest 
trails  of  a  composer,  not  a  genius,  but  of  high  and  distinctive 
gifts,  and  art  in  melody,  harmony,  and  instrumentation. 


The  lives  thus  briefly  sketched  have  told  the  story  of  the 
growth  of  music;  as  far  as  it  can  conveniently  be  pursued  in 
this  chiipt(T.  The  work  of  developing  the  art  has  been  in  these 
modern  times  so  actively  continued  in  the  lives  of  musicians 
in  our  own  and  many  other  countries  that  even  to  touch  upon 
the  important  features  of  this  would  reciuire  a  volume  devoted 
entirely  to  the  purpose. 

The  concluding  words  of  this  chapter  may  be  fittingly  ad- 
dressed to  Miu.^ic-Iovers  generally,  who  owe  so  much  to  the 
art.  and  wlio  have  the  power,  also,  of  doing  so  much  for  it. 

The  purity  of  the  art  is  in  your  keeping,  and  it  is  worth  up- 
holding at  any  cost. 

The  world  is  full  of  musical  treasures,  but  we  are  not  being 
enriched  by  these  to  lialf  the  extent  we  ought  to  be. 


112  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Tliere  are  thousands  of  gems  in  the  realm  of  song,  but  these 
are  not  the  songs  we  commonly  hear. 

Let  us  love  music  by  all  mean.*?,  but  let  it  be  music  that  we  love. 

Better  sing  a  good  song  badly,  if  your  best,  than  a  bad  song 
well. 

Better  spend  a  year  in  learning  to  do  a  good  thing  in  a  pleas- 
ing manner  than  devote  a  week  to  the  study  of  that  which 
people  will  sicken  of  if  they  hear  it  twice. 

Study  the  grammar  of  music  that  your  judgment  may  be 
sound. 

Taste  in  music  is  more  often  violated  than  in  any  other  art. 

The  untrained  eye  is  naturally  quicker  to  detect  what  is  un- 
true in  drawing  than  the  untrained  car  is  to  detect  that  which 
is  false  and  untrue  in  musical  form. 

Education  is  absolutely  necessary  if  you  would  appear  mu- 
sically refined  among  musicians. 

The  cultivation  of  good  taste  in  inusic  will  repay  you  over 
and  over  again.  You  will  less  often  appear  to  disadvantage  in 
company  by  singing  a  stupid  song,  or  applauding  some  one 
el.se  who  has  done  so.  The  music  you  will  grow  to  like  you 
will  continue  to  like,  whereas  in  former  limes  j^ou  liked  a 
thing  beyond  measure  one  week  and  liated  it  the  next.  The 
pleasure  derived  from  hearing  or  participating  in  the  perform- 
ance of  music  will  be  of  a  deeper  nature  than  that  experienced 
before,  for  which  superficial  enjoyment  you  will  not  wish 
again  to  exchange  it. 

Study  the  niceties  of  intonation,  and  if  you  sing,  or  play  the 
violin,  don't  perform  in  compnny  unless  you  know  you  sing 
or  play  in  tune. 

Don't  sing  songs  the  music  of  which  has  been  stolen.  In 
other  words,  avoid  anj'  song  that  you  know  to  be  a  deliberate 
copy  of  a  good  and  successful  song  by  anollier  writer. 

Play  the  best  music  you  can,  upon  the  best  instrument  you 
can;  don't  waste  time  over  tlie  banjo. 

JNIusic  is  a  language  of  feeling.  We  none  of  us  know  or 
speak  it  in  its  full  perfection  as  jet.  An  earnest  endeavor  to 
attain  some  riclier  appreciation  of  its  charms,  or  to  acquire 
some  higher  power  in  the  expression  of  its  meaning,  will  un- 
doubtedly bring  with  it  a  reward  of  inestimable  \yorlh. 
Exalt  art,  and  art  will  elevate  you. 


COMPOSERS  OF  MUSIC. 


113 


COMPOSERS  OP  MUSIC 


DATES   OP   BIRTH   AND   DEATH 


Bora 

Died 

Born 

Died 

Abt  . 

1819 

1885 

Bridge,  J.  F. 

1844 

Adam 

1803 

1856 

Bristow    . 

1835 

Albrccbtsberger 

1736 

1809 

Buck 

1839 

Alkan 

1813 

1888 

Byrdc 

1543 

1623 

Andre 

1741 

1799 

Arne 

1710 

1778 

Calkin,  J.  B. 

1827 

Arnold 

1739 

1803 

Callcott    . 

1766 

1821 

Asclier     . 

1831 

1889 

Cbadwick 

1854 

.... 

Attwood  . 

1767 

1838 

Cberubiui 

1760 

1842 

Auber 

1783 

1871 

Cbopin     . 

1810 

1849 

Clementi  , 

1752 

1832 

Bacb.J.S. 

1685 

1750 

Cooke 

1739 

1793 

Balfe 

1808 

1870 

Costa 

1810 

1884 

Baruby     . 

1888 

Cowen 

1852 

Barnett,  J. 

1803 

1890 

Cramer    . 

1771 

1858 

Barnelt,  J.  F.    . 

1838 

Croft 

1677 

1727 

Beetboven 

1770 

1837 

Crotcb      . 

1775 

1847 

Bellini     . 

1803 

1835 

Curwen  (Tonic 

Sol-fa.)  1816 

1880 

Benedict  . 

1804 

1885 

Czerny      . 

1791 

1857 

Bennett,  Sterndu 

e   1816 

1875 

Czibulka  , 

1843 

Beriot 

1803 

1852 

Berlioz     . 

1803 

1869 

Diabelli    . 

1781 

1858 

Bertini 

1798 

1876 

Dibdin     . 

1745 

1814 

Bisbop 

1786 

1855 

Donizetti . 

1797 

1848 

Bizet 

1838 

1875 

Dussek     . 

1761 

1812 

Blow 

1648 

1708 

Dvoi^ak     . 

1841 

Blumentbal 

1829 

Dykes,  J.  B. 

1833 

1876 

Boyce 

1710 

1779 

Bradbury 

1816 

1868 

Elvcy 

1816 

.   .  •   . 

Brabms    . 

1833 

Emerson  . 

1820 

.  .  .  • 

114 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Ernst 

Fairlamb, 

Fairant 

Fesca 

Field 

Flotow 

Foote 

Foster 

Franck 

Franz 

Gade 

Gaul 

Gibbons 

Gilchrist 

Gleason 

Glinka 

Gluck 

Godard 

Goss 

Gottschalk 

Gounod 

Graun 

Grell 

Grieg 

Guibnant 

Gung'l 

Ilalevy 

Iluiulel 

1 1 asse 

Hal  ton 

Ilaupt 

Ilaiijnmann 

Haydn 

Haydn,  M. 

Hcilor 

Henselt 


Bom 

Died 

Born 

1814 

1865 

Herold     . 

1791 

Hesse 

1809 

1887 

Hiles,  H.  . 

1826 

1520 

i58i 

Hiller 

1728 

1789 

1826 

Hiunnel    . 

1765 

1783 

1837 

Hoffman,  R. 

1831 

1812 

1833 

Hofmunn,  H. 

1842 

1853 

llorsley,  C. 

1821 

1826 

1864 

Horsley,  W. 

1774 

1822 

1890 

Hopkins,  E.  J. 

1818 

1815 

1892 

Hullah     . 

1812 

Hummel  . 

1778 

1817 

.... 

1837 

Jackson    . 

1730 

1583 

i625 

Jadassohn 

1831 

1846 

Jensen 

1837 

1848 

Joachim   . 

1831 

1804 

1857 

Jomelli     . 

1714 

1714 

1787 

1849 

Kalkbrenner 

1784 

1800 

1880 

Kalliwoda 

1800 

1829 

1869 

Kirchner  . 

1824 

1818 

1893 

Kjerulf     . 

1818 

1701 

1759 

Klein 

1793 

1800 

1886 

Kohler     . 

1820 

1843 

KUcken    . 

1810 

1837 
1810 

1889 

Kullak     . 

1818 

Laclmer   . 

1804 

1799 

1862 

Lacome    . 

1838 

1685 

1759 

Lamperli . 

1813 

1699 

1783 

Lang 

1840 

1815 

1886 

Lassen 

1830 

1810 

1891 

Lavallee  . 

1842 

1792 

1868 

Lemniens 

1823 

1732 

1809 

Leschctitzky    . 

1831 

1737 

1806 

Leslie,  H. 

1822 

1815 

1888 

Licbling  . 

1851 

1814 

1889 

Liszt 

1811 

C0MP0SEK8  OP  MUSIC. 


115 


Born 

Died 

Born 

Died 

Litolff      . 

1818 

1891 

Parker 

1828 

Lortzing  . 

1803 

1852 

Pearsall    . 

1795 

1856 

Lully 

1633 

1687 

Penfleld    . 

1837 

.    •   •   • 

Pergolesi . 

1710 

1738 

Macdowell 

1860 

Perkins    . 

1823 

1886 

Macfanen,  G.  A.       1813 

1887 

Petersilea 

1844 

Mackenzie,  A. 

D.      1847 

Pleyel       . 

1757 

1831 

Mascagni 

1864 

Prout 

1835 

Mason,  L. 

1792 

1872 

Purcell     , 

1658 

1695 

Mason,  W. 

1829 

Massenet  . 

1842 

Raff. 

1822 

1882 

Mehul       . 

1763 

1817 

Kameau   . 

1683 

1764 

Mendelssohn 

1809 

1847 

Kcinecke  . 

1824 

Mercadante 

1797 

1870 

lieissigcr  . 

1789 

1859 

Mej'crbeer 

1794 

1863 

Peubke     . 

1836 

1863 

Mills 

1838 

Rheinberger 

1839 

Molique    . 

1802 

1866 

Richtcr     . 

1808 

1879 

Morgan,  G.  W 

1822 

1891 

Rietz 

1812 

1877 

Morgan,  J.  P. 

1841 

1879 

Rinibault . 

1816 

1876 

Moriey 

1570 

1604 

Kiuck       . 

1770 

1846 

Moscheles 

1794 

1870 

Romberg,  A. 

1767 

1821 

Moszkowski 

1854 

Romberg,  B. 

1770 

1841 

Mozart 

1756 

i79i 

Root 

1820 

Rossini     . 

1792 

1868 

Nares 

1715 

1783 

Rubinstein 

1829 

.... 

Ne\ikomm 

1778 

1858 

Nicolai     . 

1810 

1849 

Saint-SaGns 

1835 

.... 

Nikisch    . 

1855 

Salome     . 

1834 

Novello,  V 

1781 

isei 

Salomon   . 

1745 

1815 

Scarlatti   . 

1659 

1725 

Oakelcy    . 

1830 

Scharwenka,  X 

:       1850 

.   .  •  . 

Offenbach 

1819 

1880 

Schneider 

1786 

1853 

Ouseley    . 

1825 

1889 

Scliubert . 

1797 

1828 

Schumann 

1810 

1856 

Padcrewski 

1859 

Sgambatti 

1843 

Piiganini  . 

1784 

1840 

Sihus 

1827 

I'aine 

1839 

Singer,  0. 

1833 

Palestrina 

1514 

i594 

Smart,  11. 

1812 

1879 

Palmer 

1834 

Smetana  . 

1824 

1884 

116 

GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Born 

Died 

Born 

Died 

Spohr 

1784 

1859 

Turner     . 

. 

1854 

1888 

Stainer 

1840 

Tye  . 

1500 

1560 

Stanford  . 

1852 

Strauss 

1825 

Vanderstucken 

1858 

Strong 

1855 

Verdi 

1814 

Sullivan   . 

1844 

Viotli 

1753 

1824 

Silssmayer 

1766 

1803 

Vogler     . 

1749 

1814 

Sveudsen . 

1840 

Wagner    . 

1813 

1883 

Tallis 

1529 

1585 

Wallace    . 

1814 

1865 

Tausig     . 

1841 

1871 

Walmisley 

1814 

1856 

Tlialberg  . 

1812 

1871 

Warren,  G. 

W.' 

1828 

Thayer      . 

1838 

1889 

Warren,  S. 

P.  . 

1841 

Thomas,  Ambr 

oise  1811 

Webbe     . 

1740 

1817 

Thomas,  A.  Go 

ring  1851 

1892 

Weber      . 

1786 

1826 

Thomas,  Tlieo.( 

Cond.)1835 

Wesley,  Samuel 

1766 

1837 

Tomlins    . 

1844 

Wilbye     . 

1560 

1613 

Tourjee    . 

1834 

1891 

Wiiigham 

, 

1846 

1893 

Tours 

1838 

Tschaikowski 

1840 

Zarlino     . 

1519 

1590 

Tuckerman 

1819 

Zolicr 

1758 

1832 

Turle 

1803 

1882 

Zingarelli 

1753 

1837 

MUSICAL  TERMS. 


117 


CHAPTER   X 


MUSICAL    TERMS 


{It.  Italian;  Fr.  French;  Ger.  Oerman;  Or.  Ohreek;  8p.  Span- 
ish; Eng.  English;  Amer.  American;  Lat.  Latin.) 


A.     Tlie  sixth  note  of  the  modern  scale  of  C;  called  also  La. 

Abandon  (Fr.).     Free,  unrestrained. 

Abbandonamento  {It.).  Despoudingly ;  with  self-abandon- 
ment. 

Abendliei)  {Oer.).    Evening  song. 

Abendmusik  (Ccr. ).     Evening  music;  a  serenade. 

Academy  op  music.     An  institution  in  which  music  is  taught. 

A  CAPELLA  (//.).  In  llie  cliurch  style  ;  unaccompanied  by  in- 
struments. 

A  CAPiiiccio  {It.).     In  a  fanciful  style. 

Accelerando  {It.).     Gradually  quickening  the  time. 

Accent.  Tlie  stress  laid  upon  particular  notes  by  which 
rhythm  is  made  clear;  or  by  which  certain  notes  are 
brought  into  prominence.     {See  page  88.)  k 

AcciACC.\TUUA  {It.).     A  sliort  grace  note,  usually  wriiten  4 

Accidentals.  Occasional  sharps, 
flats,  and  naturals,  occurring 
in  the  course  of  a  piece. 

Accompaniment.  The  subordi- 
nate part  of  a  composition 
which  supplies  the  harmonies 
to  llie  solo  voice,  violin,  or 
other  instrument. 

Accoudiox.  a  small  reed  instru- 
ment with  bellows  worked  by 
tlie  hands  of  the  player,  the 
lingers  at  the  same  time  pro- 


118  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

(lucing  the  music  from  a  row  of  keys  for  the  right  band, 
and  a  few  for  the  left  supplying  accompanying  chords. 

AccKESCENDo,  or  CuES.  (/if.).  Increasing,  or  augmenting,  the 
power  of  tone. 

Acoustics.  A  science  which  treats  of  the  cause,  nature,  and 
phenomena  of  all  sound. 

Acute.     High  in  pitch;  rapid  vibration. 

Adagio  {It.).  A  slow  degree  of  movement,  but  not  the  slow- 
est in  use.  Largo  and  Orave  each  signifying  a  slower  time. 

Adagio  assai  (It.).  Assai,  very ;  adagio,  slow ;  therefore,  very 
slow. 

Adagio  cantabile  e  sostenuto.  {It.).  Adagio,  slov? ;  cantabile, 
in  a  singing  style ;  e  sostenuto,  and  sustained. 

Adagio  molto  (It.).  Adagio,  slow ;  molto,  very  much,  extreme- 
ly ;  therefore,  very  slowly. 

Adagio  non  troppo  {It.).  Non  troppo,  not  too  much  ;  there- 
fore, not  so  slow  as  adagio. 

Adagio  patetico  (//.).     Slowly  and  pathetically. 

Adagio  keligioso  (It.).  Slowly,  in  a  religious  or  devotional 
manner. 

Adagissimo  {It.).     Extremely  slow. 

Ad  libitum  {Lat.).  At  pleasure,  without  restriction.  In  the 
performance  of  a  passage  thus  marked  certain  liberties 
niiiy  be  taken  with  the  time,  slackening  to  give  effect  to 
the  notes  of  a  phrase  or  the  words  of  a  vocal  passage. 

Adounamento  (/<.).     An  ornament. 

A  DUE  {It.).     For  two ;  a  duct. 

A.x>v\\{Ger.).     A  major. 

Ad  una  corda  ilt.).  For  one  string ;  in  piano  music,  the  sign 
for  tiie  pedal  on  the  left. 

.^OLiAN  iiAUP.  A  simple  instrument  invented  about  the  mid- 
die  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Upon  a  siiglit  oblong  box 
are  stretched  strings  of  catgut,  all  tuned  to  tlie  same  note, 
with  a  heavier  string  tuned  to  the  lower  octave.  The 
"wind  playing  over  tliese  at  an  open  window  produces 
harmonies  of  a  soft,  pleasing  nature. 

.Esthetics.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  beautiful  in  art; 
the  theory  and  philosophy  of  taste. 

Affabile  {It.).     Pleasing,  elegant. 

Afpettuoso  (/if.).     Tender  and  pathetic. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  119 

Agitato  (/(!.).     Agitated,  perturbed. 

Agitazione  (It.).  Agitation,  with  increasing  power  and  mo- 
tion. 

Agitato  con  passione  {It.).     Witli  agitation  and  passion. 

Agnus  Dei  (Lai.).  Lamb  of  God.  The  first  words  of  a  move- 
ment ill  a  mass,  by  whicli  that  number  is  linown. 

Air.  a  strain,  melody,  or  spng  ;  the  upper  part  of  a  tune. 
An  arrangement  of  musical  phrases  forming  a  complete 
melody  which  could  be  sung  or  played  without  accom- 
paniment. 

Air  tendres  (Fr.).     Airs  of  tender  feelings,  love-songs. 

Air  varie  (Fr.).     Air  with  variations. 

AiH  (Ger.).     The  note  A«. 

A  l' ABANDON  (Fr.).     Ill  a  free,  unrestrained  manner. 

A  LA  POLACCA  (It.).  Resembling  the  Polish  dance  of  that 
name. 

Al  fine,  e  poi  la  coda  (It.).  Play  to  the  mark  fine,  then 
go  to  the  part  marked  ' '  Coda. " 

Aliquot-tones.     Overtones  or  harmonics. 

Al      j 

Ai'i'o  I  ^■^'^■^'     '^^  ^''^"^ '  '"  ^''^  style,  or  manner  of. 

All'  J 

Alla  breve  (It.).  A  form  of  quadruple  time  much  used  in 
church  music.  There  are  four  half-notes  in  a  bar,  which 
are  played  as  the  four  (luarter-iiotes  of  ordinary  common 
time  would  be.     The  sign  for  this  time  is : 


$^ 


^^d= 


Alla  cappella  (It.).  In  the  church  style.  As  with  alia  breve, 
this  term  signifies  that  half-notes  take  the  place  of  quarter- 
notes,  though  alia  cappella  is  usually  applied  to  duple  lime, 
two  half-notes  in  a  bar.  The  sigu  is  the  same  as  for  alia 
breve.  ,,  ,  .        . 


Alla  marcia  (It.).    Like  a  march. 


120  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Alla  stretta  (It.).    In  a  close,  pressing  style ;  with  increas- 
ing pace. 
Alla  zingara  (It.).     In  the  bright  gay  style  of  Italian  gypsy 

songs. 
Alle  (Ge)'.).    All ;  allestimmen  zusammen,  all  voices  together. 
Allegramente  (It.).     Brightly,  quickly,  joyfully. 
Allegretto  (It.).     Diminutive  of  allegro;  in  pace  between 

moderato  and  allegro. 
Allegretto  scderz-^ndo  (It.)    Brightly  and  playfully. 
Allegro  (It.).     Quick,  lively  ;  a  term  used  to  denote  a  rapid, 

vivacious  movement. 

AGITATO  (It.).     Quick,  and  with  agitation. 

ASSAi  (It.).     Assai,  very  ;  therefore,  very  quick. 

COMODO  (It.).     Quick,  but  accommodating  itself  to  the 

style  of  the  composition. 

CON  RRio  (It.).     Quick,  with  life  and  brilliance. 

CON  Fuoco  (It.).     Quick,  with  fire,  or  animation. 

CON  MOTO  (It.).    Quick,  with  motion  ;  in  familiar  English 

with  go. 

CON  SPIRITO  (It.).     Quick,  with  spirit. 

Di  BRAVURA  (It.).     Quick,  with  brilliant  execution. 

Di  MOLTO  (It.).     Molto,  much;  therefore,  with  much  speed 

and  animation. 

FURioso  (It.).    Quick,  with  fury  and  impetuosity. 

GiusTO  (It.).     Quick,  but  exact  in  time. 

MA  GRAZioso  (It!).     Quick,  but  gracefully. 

MA  NON  PRESTO  (It.).    Quick ;  but  not  presto,  a  faster  time 

than  allegro. 
MA  NON  TROPPO  (It.).     Quick,  ma  non  troppo,  but  not  too 

mucli  ;  therefore,  quick,  but  not  too  fast. 

MODERATO  (It.).     Moderately  quick. 

RisoLUTO  (It.).     Quick,  with  resolute  and  firm  touch  or 

style. 

VELOCE  (It.).     Quick,  with  velocity. 

VIVACE  (It.).     Quick,  with  vivacity. 

VIVO  (It.).     Quick,  and  vivacious. 

Allein  (Oer.).    Alone  ;  music  thus  marked  is  to  be  sung  by  a 

solo  voice. 
Alleluia    )  Praise  the  Lord  !  A  word  much  used  in  an- 
Allelujah  )         thems  of  praise  or  thanksgiving. 


MUSICAL  TERMS. 


121 


Allemande  (F>-.).    a  German  air;  also  a  dance  peculiar  to 

Germany  and  Switzerland. 
Al  loco  (It).     lu  its  place  ;  a  term  used  as  a  reminder  that 

the  notes  are  played  as  written,  after  they  have  been  made 

an  octave  higher  by  dots. 


All  unisono  (It.).    In  unison:  a  unison  or  octave  passage. 

Al  piacere  (/if.).     At  pleasure. 

Al  piu  {It.).    The  most. 

Al  rigoke  di  tempo  {It.).     Rigorously  strict  in  time. 

Al  segno  (//.).     To  the  sign ;  a  term  signifying  repetition,  the 

performer  going  back  to  a  sign  of  this  kind:  ^. 
Als  vorstudium  {Ger.').    As  preparatory  study. 


Alt  {It.).    IIi(jh.     Notes  from  Gr  \\ 


I. 


to  the  F  above 


are  said  to  be  in  alt. 


Alt.v  {It.).   High,  or  higher  in  the  scale  ;  otiata  alia,  an  octave 
higher.  ^ 


Altissi.mo  {It.).     The  highest;   all  notes  from  G 
upwards  are  said  to  be  in  aUissirno: 


i 


Alto  {It.).  The  name  given  to  the  highest  of  men's  voices,  and 
also  to  the  part  they  sing.  In  a  male  quartette  the  alto  is 
the  upper  part. 


Alto  Clef.     Writ 


,  the  third  line  being  C,  the 


middle  C  of  the  pianoforte ;  the  C  clef  as  used  in  music 

written  for  the  viola. 
Alt'  ottava  {It.).     Tlie  notes  to  be  played  an  octave  higher. 
Amabile  {It.).     Amiable,  graceful,  tender. 
Amacilita  {It).     Gentleness,  gracefulness. 


122  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Amateur  {Fr.).  One  who  practices  or  performs  music  without 
Laving  taken  it  up  as  a  profession. 

Ambrosian  chant.  Tlienies  or  melodies  introduced  in  the 
fourtli  century  by  St.  Ambrose  of  ]\Iilan,  and  used  in  the 
recitation  or  chanting  of  the  canticles  of  the  Church. 

American  reed  organ.  An  instrument  which  in  many  respects 
resembles  the  harmonium,  being  blown  and  played  in  a 
similar  fashion.  The  wind  acts  upon  the  reeds  in  a  man- 
ner exactly  the  reverse  of  the  harmonium,  however,  being 
drawn  through  from  without,  not  blown  through  from 
within  ;  and  the  tone  is  softer  and  smoother  than  that 
which  characterizes  the  harmonium. 

A  mezza  voce  (It.).    With  half  voice  ;  a  quiet,  subdued  tone. 

A  MOLL  {Ger.).     A  minor,  the  key  of  A  minor. 

Amore  {It.).     Love,  sweetness,  affection. 

A:ffACUEONTic.     In  the  Bacchanalian,  or  drinking-song  style. 

Ancor  piu  mosso  (//.).     More  motion  ;  still  more  quickly. 

Andante  {It.).  A  steady,  smooth,  easy-going  rate  of  move- 
ment ;  slower  than  moderato  ;  a  little  faster  than  andantino. 

Andante  affettuoso.     Steady  in  pace,  but  with  pathos. 

CANTABiLE.     Smootli,  casy  movement,  and  song-like. 

CON  moto.     Steady,  but  with  some  movement  or  life. 

GRAZioso.     Steady,  with  grace  of  expression. 

maestoso.     Steady,  with  a  touch  of  the  majestic. 

NGN  TROPPO.    Moving  easilj- and  steadily,  but  not  too  slow. 

pastorale.     Steady,  and  in  simple  pastoral  style. 

Andantino  (Jt.).  A  very  steady  rate  of  movement  ;  rather 
slower  than  andante. 

Angelica.  The  name  given  to  a  soft  and  voice-like  stop  in 
the  organ  ;  sometimes  Vo.r  angelica. 

Anglaise  {Fr.).     A  dance  tune  of  English  style. 

Anima  (//.).     Soul,  life,  animation. 

Animato  (//.).     Animated  ;  with  life  and  animation. 

Animo  ilt.).     Boldness  of  spirit,  resolution. 

Animoso  (it.).     Brightness  and  boldness  of  spirit. 

Ansprache  {Ger.).     Intonation,  sound. 

Anspracuen  {Ger.).     To  give  forth  sound. 

Anstimmen  (Ger.).     To  sing,  or  to  emit  sound  ;  to  intone. 

Antecedent  {Lat.).  The  subject  of  a  fugue,  or  of  a  point  of 
imitation. 


MUSICAL  TEUMS.  128 

Antiiem.  a  form  of  composition  in  common  use  in  our  cliurch 
services.  It  is  sometimes  for  a  full  clioir  througliout,  and 
sometimes  for  two  choirs  :  decani,  first  clioir  ;  cantoris,  sec- 
ond choir.  Solo  parts  are  also  introduced  in  some  anthems, 
the  term  vene  implying  that  the  parts  are  to  be  sung  by 
solo  voices,  and  full,  by  the  combined  choirs.  The  words 
of  the  anthem  are  usually  Scriptural,  though  a  hymn  is 
sometimes  set  in  anthem  form.  An  accompaniment  for 
the  organ  is  generally  written. 

A  ATTTrrPATinv  (  ^  "^^'^  ^^  chord  soundiug  before  the  beat 

ANTirnoNE  (Ger.).  Tlie  musical  response  of  one  choir  to 
another,  or  of  tlie  people  to  the  priest ;  singing  alter- 
nately. 

Antistrophe.  The  second  stanza  in  ancient  poetry  or  church 
music,  the  first  being  called  the  atrophe ;  each  strophe  was 
recited  or  sung  while  turning  a  different  way. 

ANTixntsis.  A  term  used  in  figures,  signifying  the  answer,  or 
contrasting  subject. 

A  PiACEUE  {It.).  At  pleasure  ;  tlie  fancy  of  the  performermay 
be  indulged  in  regard  to  time  or  expression. 

A  poco  {It.).     A  little,  by  degrees. 

A  POCO  piu  LENTO  (/?.).     A  little  more  slowly. 

A  POCO  PIU  ANiMATO  {It.).     A  little  more  animatedly. 

A  POCO  PIU  Mosso  {It.).  A  little  more  movement,  or  more 
rapidity  of  movement. 

Apollo.  Among  ancient  Greeks,  the  god  of  music,  and  in- 
ventor of  the  lyre. 

Appassionato  (//.).     With  strong,  passionate  feeling. 

AppoGGi.vruRA  {It.).     A  grace  note- 

A  QUATRE  MAINS  {Fr.).     For  four  hands  ;  a  duet. 
Arco  {It.).     The  bow  ;  coll'  arco,  with  tlie  bow. 
Ardente  {It.  and  Fr.).     Fiery,  vehement. 
Aria  (//.).     An  air,  or  a  song. 
Arpa  {It.).     The  harp. 

Arpegg I ATo ''  i  <^^^- ^ •    ^^"""^^  P^'^y^^  ^°  *  barp-like  manner. 


124 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Arpkggtamfnto  ( <^^^)-    P''^y^°g  the  notes  of  a  chord  one 

T^^^^^T^  i         after  another  from  the  bottom  upwards, 

Arpeggio  ]         as  on  the  harp.  ^ 

Art  iOer.).     Species,  kind,  mode. 

Art  de  l'archet  (.Ft.').     Tlie  art  of  bowing. 

AuTiSTA  {It.).    I  An  artist:  singers,  performers,  or  composers 

Artiste  {Fr.).  \         of  the  highest  class. 

As  (Ger.).    The  key  of  Ah. 

As  DUR  iOer.).     The  key  of  A!?  major. 

As  MOLL  (Oer.).    The  key  of  Ah  minor. 

AssAi  (It.).     Very,  more,  extremely;  Allegro  assai,  very  quick. 

AssAi  Piu  (It.).    Much  more. 

AssoLUTO  (It.).    Absolute,  free,  not  slurred  or  bound. 

A  TEMPO  (.It).    In  time.    Resuming  the  time,  after  a  pause  or 

a  ritardando. 
A  TEMPO  GiusTO  {It.').    In  exact,  strict,  equal  tijne. 
A  TRE,  or  A  3  {It.).    For  three  voices,  or  instruments  ;  a  Trio, 

or  Terzetto. 
A  TRE  CORDE  {It.).  For  three  strings;  in  piano  music,  the  sign 

for  the  pedal  on  the  right. 
Attacca  )  {It.).    Go  on  at  once  to  the  following  move- 

Attacca  subito  f        ment. 
Augment.    To  add  to.     Augmented  internals,  perfect  or  major 

intervals  made  larger  by  chromatic  alteration. 
Authentic  Cadence.    The  perfect  cadence  ;  a  common  chord 

on  the  dominant,  followed  by  one  on  the  tonic. 


r- 


B.    The  seventh  note  of  the  scale  of  C, 


■i 


,  called  in 


France  and  Italy  Si,  and  in  Germany  H,  the  letter  B  in  this 
latter  country  indicating  our  Bb. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  125 

Bacchia.     a  Kamschatka  dance  in  ^  time. 

Bacciiuslied  (Ger.').   A  song  performed  at  Bacchanalian  feasts. 

Bacciocolo  {It.).     A  Tuscan  musical  instrument. 

Baciielou  of  music.  An  English  musical  degree,  preceding 
that  of  Doctor  of  Music. 

Badinage  (Fi:').  Mirth,  gayety  ;  atec  badinage,  in  a  merry, 
frolicsome  style. 

B.VGATELLE  iFi'.}.     A  short  easy  composition  ;  a  trifle. 

Bagpipes.  A  musical  wind  instrument  used  in  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, Wales,  and  other  countries,  but  chiefly  identified  with 
Scotland.  It  consists  of  a  leathern  bag,  which  receives 
and  stores  the  air  blown  into  it  through  a  tube,  and  of 
pipes  into  which  the  air  is  pressed  by  the  arm  of  the  per- 
former, the  tune  being  fingered  upon  certain  of  the  pipes 
at  the  same  time. 

Baisseu  (Fr.).     To  flatten  the  pitch. 

B.UON  (Sp.).     The  bassoon. 

Ballad.  A  song  of  simple  character,  the  music  of  each  verse 
being  alike. 

Ballet  (Fr.).  A  graceful  dance  of  a  spectacular  nature  for 
the  stage. 

Ballo  (It.).     A  dance,  or  a  dance  tune. 

Banjo.  An  instrument  used  chiefly  in  accompanying  negro 
songs. 


Bau.   The  music  or  period  of  time  represented  between : 

the  lines  across  the  slave. 
Bap.catiola  (It.).     A  boat  song  or  air,  usually  in  g  time. 
B.\iiD.     Among  the  ancients  a  poet-singer,  or  poet-musician.' 
,,       ,        (p.^  r  The  high  bass  voice,  the  compass  of  which 

Barytone  (Fitf/.)    <  

Baritone  (yi«i«r.)      isfromF^E^i 

higher. 
Bass  ) 

Bv'so  (It )  \  '^'^^  '^^^  '"'^'^  voice,  the  compass  of  which  may 

be  from  i^^E 


126  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Bassa  (/)!.).     Low,  deep;  8oa  tossa,  an  octave  lower. 
Basse-contre  (Fr.).     The  largest  Instrument  of  the  violin 

family ;  the  double-bass. 
B ASSET-HORN.     An  instrument  somewhat  like  the  clarinet,  but 

of  deeper  tone,  having  a  bell-shaped  end. 
Bassoon.     A  wind  instrument  of  wood,  with  a  double  reed 

like  the  oboe.     It.  Fagotto.     (See  page  5.) 
Battuta  (It.).     Time  or  measure. 
B  DUR  (Ge)'.).     Tlie  key  of  Bb  major. 
Bell  gamba.     Tlie  name  of  an  organ  stop;  the  pipes  having  a 

bell-sliaped  top. 

Ben(/^).     Well,  good. 
Ben  marc.\to  (It.).     Well  marked. 
BiciiORD  (Lat.).     Having  two  strings  to  each  note. 
BrN.\RV  ME.\suRE.     Common  time  of  two  in  a  bar. 
Bis  (Lat.).     Twice;  to  be  played  twice  over. 
BizzARRO  (It.).     Wliimsical.  fantastical,  odd. 
BoGEN  (Ger.).     The  bow  of  violin,  or  other  stringed  instru- 
ments. 
Bolero  (Sp.).    A  Spanish  dance,  in  3  lime. 

BoMBARDE  (Fr.).     A  loud  16-ft.  reed  stop  in  the  organ. 
Bourdon  (Fr.).     A  soft  16-ft.   stop  in  the  organ;  the  pipes 
being  of  wood,  and  stopped. 


Brace.     The  line  which  connects  the  staves 


Br.wuka  (It.).     Passages  of  great  brightness,  spirit,  and  vigor. 
Breve  (It.).     The  note  13=^,  from  wliicli  (;omes  scinibrcve  c;  (or 

whole-note),  a  note  half  tiic  length  of  the  breve. 
Bridge.     That  upon  which  the  strings  of  musical  instruments 

are  supported. 
Brillante  (It.).     Bright,  brilliant. 
Brio  (It.).     Life,  animation. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  127 

Buffo  (It.).     Comic,  humorous.     A  singer  of  songs  of  a  light, 
humorous  order. 


C.  Tlie  key-note  of  the  natural  scale,  that  written  ■without 
sharps  or  flats.     U'v  (Fr.).     Do  {It.). 

£[  The  sign  used  to  denote  common  time ;  four  quarter-notes 
in  a  bar. 

Cadence.     The  closing  chords  of  a  strain. 

Cadenza  (It.).  An  ornamental  passage  of  runs,  or  trills,  in- 
troduced at  a  pause  near  the  end  of  a  movement  in  a  song 
or  instrumental  solo. 

C.\isSE  (F/'.).     A  drum. 

CAiiANDO  {If.).     Dying  away ;  becoming  softer  and  slower. 

Calm.xto  {It.).     Calmness,  tranquillity. 

Caloue  (//.).     Animation,  warmth,  fire. 

Canon.  A  composition  in  which  one  part  follows  another 
over  the  same  notes,  separated  perhaps  by  an  octave,  but 
exactly  imitating  its  movement. 

Cant.vbile  (It.).     As  if  sung.    In  a  smooth,  song-like  manner. 

Cantando  (It.).     Smooth,  gliding,  voice-like. 

C.\NTATA  {It.).  The  name  usually  given  to  a  secular  work  for 
solo  voices  and  a  chorus.  "  The  May  Queen  "  and  "  The 
Ancient  Mariner"  are  well-known  works  of  this  kind. 

C.vNTO  fekmo  (It.).  Plain  chant.  A  simple  theme  of  a  few 
notes  forming  the  subject  of  an  exercise  in  counterpoint. 

C.VNfUS  FiHMus  (Lat.).  The  tenor  or  chief  melody  originally 
sung  by  tlie  tenor  voices. 

Can/.ona  (It.).     A  graceful  air  or  song,  of  varied  strains. 

C.\PELL-MEisTKR  ((rV/-.).  Tiic  licad  of  all  the  musicians  in  a 
catliedral  or  church. 

Capo  (It.).  Tlie  beginning,  tlie  liead.  Dn  Capo,  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

Capkiccio  (It.).     A  bright,  fanciful  composition. 

Cauol.  a  cheerful  song  or  short  chorus  usually  associated 
Willi  Christmas-time. 

Castanets.     Two  small  pieces  of  boxwood  or  ebony  used  in 


128  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

the  dance  music  of  Spain  and  other  countries.  They  are 
held  in  one  hand,  or  a  pair  in  each,  and  are  snapped  to- 
gether in  a  rhythmic  accompaniment  to  the  movement. 

Catch.  A  composition  for  several  voices,  the  words  of  which 
are  so  arranged  as  to  produce  amusing  effects  through 
double  meanings,  as:  "Ah!  our  Sophia!"  (Ah,  house  o* 
fire !)  "Go  fetch  the  Indians !"  (Go  fetch  the  engines !),  etc. 

Cavatina  {It. ).    A  graceful  air,  of  extended  and  dramatic  form. 

G  Clef.     Written  r|^— ]  tenor,  C  on  the  fourth  line,  or  |-M^ 

alto,  C  on  the  third  line.     {See  page  20.) 

Clere  {It.).     Quick,  with  great  rapidity. 

Celeste  {It.).  Heavenly.  A  harmonium  or  American  Organ 
stop,  supposed  to  be  of  celestial  sweetness.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  soft  pedal  (or  una  coi'da)  of  the  piano, 
when  its  action  causes  a  piece  of  felt  to  come  between  the 
hammer  and  the  wires,  thus  softening  the  tone. 

Celestina  {It.).  An  organ  stop  of  sw^eet,  quiet  tone,  also  a 
reed  instrument  like  the  harmonium,  but  of  much  smaller 
compass  and  dimensions. 

Chaconne  {Ft.).     A  slow,  graceful  dance  tune  in  3  lime. 

Chamber  -  MUSIC.  Music  suitable  for  the  drawing  -  room  or 
music-room,  as  well  as  for  small  concerts,  as  string  trios, 
quartets,  etc. 

Chant.  The  strain  to  which  the  psalms  are  sung  in  churches, 
etc. ;  to  chant,  to  sing  in  chant  form,  reciting  some  words 
to  the  given  sound,  and  singing  others  in'strict  time. 

Chef-d'ceovre.  {Fr.).     The  chief  %vork  ;  a  masterpiece. 

Chceur  (T''/-.).     The  choir;  the  chorus. 

Choir.  The  singers  in  a  church  or  orchestra :  also  that  part 
of  a  cathedral  where  the  singers  sit.  Choir  organ,  usually 
the  lowest  key-board  in  the  instrument,  the  stops  of  which 
are  sweet  and  soft. 

Choral.  Full,  all  the  voices  of  the  choir ;  choral  music,  music 
for  a  choir  or  chorus  of  voices ;  also  a  psalm  or  hymn  tune. 

Chord.  An  agreeable  combination  of  sounds  of  different 
pitch. 

Chorister.     A  choir  sinu'er. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  129 

CnoRUS.     A  full  company  of  singers.     Also  a  composition  for 

a  company  of  singers. 
Cis  (Ger.).     The  note  CI 
Cis  DUR  {Ger.).    Tlie  key  of  Cj  major. 
Cis  MOLL  {Ger.).     The  key  of  C$  minor. 
Cither.     An  instrument  having  wires,  on  which  a  melody  is 

played,  while  an  accompaniment  is  played  upon  strings  of 

catgut. 
Clarabella.     An  organ  stop,  the  pipes  being  of  wood  and  of 

eight-feet  scale. 
Clarinet.     A  wood  wind  instrument  of  full  and  rich  tone, 

having  a  single  reed  which  is  acted  upon  by  the  breath  of 

the  player.     {See  page  5.) 
Clarion.    A  reed  stop  in  the  organ  of  four-feet  scala 
Clarionet.     (5fee  "  Clarinet.") 
Cl.wecin  (Fr.).     The  harpsichord. 
Clavichord.  An  ancient  instrument  played  in  the  manner  of  the 

pianoforte  and  harpsichord,  which  instruments  it  preceded. 
Cl.wier.    The  key-board,  or  finger-board,  of  such  instruments 

as  tlie  piano  and  organ. 
Clef  (Fr.).  A  key.   A  sign  which  determines  the  pitch  of  the 

notes.  ^,  Q,  or  treble  clef  ;  ^,  F,  or  bass  clef  ;  |^  M,  C 

tenor,  also  alto  clef. 
C  MOLL  (Ger.).     The  key  of  C  minor. 

Coda  (It.).   A  piece  added  to  a  composition  to  bring  it  to  a  close. 
Col  arco  {It.).     Willi  the  bow. 
CoLL.\  voce  {It.).     With  the  voice. 
Coll'  ottava  {It.).     With  octaves  ;  played  in  octaves. 
Common  chord.    The  simplest  chord  in  harmony,  consisting 

of  a  bass  note,  wilh  its  third  and  fifth  added  in  the  other 

parts.    The  octave  of  the  root  (bass  note)  is  usually  added. 

Such  chords  are  usually  called  triads. 


130  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Con  {It.).    With. 

Con  anima  {It.).    With  soul,  life,  boldness. 

Con  brio  (/;;.).     With  life,  fire,  spirit,  brilliancy. 

Con  calma  {It.).     With  calmness  and  tranquillity. 

Con  calore  {It.).     Willi  warmth,  with  fire. 

Con  celerita  {It.').     With  celerity,  with  rapidity. 

Concerted  music.    Music  for  several  voices  or  instruments  in 

combination. 
Concertina.    An  instrument  the  tones  of  which  are  produced 

from  metal  tongues,  the  wind  being  pressed  upon  these  or 

drawn  in  over  them  by  the  hands  of  tlie  player,  while  the 

fingers  manipulate  the  keys  at  either  end. 
Concerto.    A  work  for  a  solo  instrument,  violin,  piano,  organ, 

etc.,  with  orchestral  accompaniment. 
Con  comodo  {It.).    With  ease.    In  an  unrestrained,  easy  man- 

ner. 
Concord.     Agreement  in  sound. 
Con  dolore  {It.).     With  grief,  mournfully. 
Con  eleganza  {It.).     With  elegance. 
Con  energia  {It.).     With  energy. 
Con  espressionk  {It.).     With  e.xprcssion. 
Con  forza  {It.).     With  force. 
Con  fuoco  {It.).    With  fire. 
Con  grazia  {It.).     Willi  grace. 
Con  molto  passione  {It.).     With  much  pas'^ion. 
Con  moto  {It.).    With  motion.    Andante  con  moto,  yiiili  q\i\ck- 

er  movement  than  andante  alone  would  imply. 

Con  Sva^^"^  [  ^^''•^-     ^^^^^  octaves  ;  played  in  octaves. 
Consecutive.     Intervals  or  chords  of  similar  nature  following 
one  another.     Progression  in  consecutive  fifths — 


m 


m 


is  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  harmony. 
Con  sordini  {It.  pi.).     With  mutes.     The  sordino,  or  mute, 

placed  upon  the  bridge  of  the  violin,  reduces  its  power  of 

tone. 
Con  spirito  {It.).     With  spirit-. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  131 

Contra  basso  {It.).  The  double  bass,  tbe  deepest  toned  in- 
strument of  tbe  string  family. 

Contralto.     Tbe  deep,  full-toned  female  voice. 

Contrapuntist.     One  skilled  in  Counterpoint. 

Con  tutta  forza  {It.).     Witb  all  tbe  power  of  tone. 

Con  variazione  {It.).     Witb  variations. 

CoR  Anglais  {Fr.).  Tbe  Englisb  born.  Similar  to  the  oboe, 
but  of  deeper,  fuller  tone. 

Cornet  a  pistons  {Ft.).  A  brass  instrument  of  trumpet-like 
tone,  but  baving  valves  or  pistons  for  tbe  fingers,  by  wbich 
tbe  various  notes  of  tbe  scale  are  produced.     {See  page  3.) 

CoRNO  Di  bassetto  {It.).  Tbe  basset-born.  An  instrument 
resembling  tbe  clarinet,  but  baving  a  brass  bell-sbaped 
moutb,  wbicb  gives  to  its  tone  a  fine,  ricb  cbaracter.  An 
eigbt-feet  reed  organ  stop  is  often  found  bearing  tbis  name. 

Counterpoint.  Point  against  point.  Tbe  art  of  combining 
tbemes  or  subjects,  each  baving  good  melodic  form,  and 
producing  perfect  barmony  wben  beard  togetber. 

Counter-subject.    Tbe  second  subject  in  a  fugue. 

Crescendo  {It.).     Increasing  in  power  of  tone. 

Crotchet.    {See  page  30,  cbap.  iv.) 

Cymbals.  Two  circular  metal  plates,  wbicb  wben  struck  to- 
getber produce  a  brigbt  clang  of  useful  effect  in  band 


D.  Tbe  second  note  of  tbe  scale  of  C,  called  Re  in  France  and 
Italy. 

Da  Capo  {It.).  From  tbe  mark  da  Capo  or  D.C.  tbe  player 
returns  to  tbe  commencement  of  tbe  piece,  and  repeats  tbe 
first  movement.  If  repeats  occur  in  tbis  first  movement 
tbey  are  omitted  wben  playing  it  tbe  second  time. 

Da  capo,  e  poi  la  coda  {It.).  Repeat  tbe  first  movement,  and 
tbcn  go  to  tbe  Coda. 

Dal  segno  {It.).     From  tbe  sign :  repeat  from  the  sign  '8-. 

Dampers.  A  number  of  pieces  of  felt  in  tbe  piano,  one  for 
each  note,  wbich  rise  from  tbe  wire  as  tbe  key  is  put  down, 
and  fall  again  when  it  is  allowed  to  rise,  stopping  tbe 
vibration. 


132  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Damper  pedal  (Fr.,  The  corde).  The  pedal  to  the  right, 
which,  when  pressed  down,  raises  all  the  dampers  together. 

a)  dur  {Oer.).     The  key  of  D  major. 

Decani  {Lat.,  pi.).  In  cathedrals  and  churches  the  choir  is 
usually  divided  into  two  parts,  called  severally  decani  and 
cantoris.  The  music  marked  decani  is  usually  taken  by 
the  singers  who  sit  on  the  right  hand  side  entering  the 
choir  from  the  nave. 

Decisione  {It.).     With  firmness,  decision. 

Decrescendo  {It.).    Decreasing  in  power  of  tone. 

Delicatissimo  {It.).    Very  delicately. 

Delicato  {It.).    Delicately,  softly. 

Demi  {Fr.).     Half. 

Demisemiquaver.     {See  page  30,  chap,  iv.) 

Des  {Oer.).    The  note  D  flat. 

Des  dur  {Oer.).     The  key  of  D  flat  major. 

Des  moll  {Oer.).     The  key  of  D  flat  minor. 

Destra  (/it.).     Right.    Dcs^j'a  wzano,  the  right  hand. 

Detaciie  {Fr.).     Detached,  staccato. 

Devozione  {It.).    Devotion,  with  religious  feeling. 

Diapason  {Or.).  An  octave;  tlie  scale  of  a  voice  or  instru- 
ment. Also  the  name,  of  the  chief  stop  upon  the  manuals 
of  the  organ. 

Diatonic  {Or.).  According  to  the  natural  scale;  proceeding 
by  tones  and  semitones  as  they  occur  in  the  scale. 

Diminished.  Intervals  which  are  made  less  than  minor  or 
perfect  are  said  to  be  diminislied. 

Diminuendo  {It.).    Gradually  diminishing  the  power  of  tone. 

Di  MOLTO  {It.).  Very  much :  allegro  di  inolto,  very  quick,  more 
than  allegro. 

DiB  {Oer.).     The  note  D  sharp. 

Discord.    A  combination  of  sounds  not  in  agreement. 

Dis  DUR  (G^er.).     The  key  of  D  sharp  major. 

Dis  MOLL  {Oer.).     The  key  of  D  sharp  minor. 

Dissonance.    A  discord. 

Divertimento  {It.).     A  light,  pleasing  form  of  composition. 

Divisi  {It.).  Divided,  separated.  A  term  used  to  indicate  a 
division  in  instruments  or  voices,  one-half  of  the  performers 
taking  the  upper,  and  the  other  half  the  lower  notes. 

D  moll  (Jyer.).    Tlie  key  of  D  minor. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  183 

Do  {It.).    The  note  C. 

Doctor  of  music.    Mus.  Doc,  the  highest  of  musical  degrees. 
Douce  {It.).     Sweetly,  softly. 
DoLCEMENTE  (It.).    Gently,  softly,  sweetly. 
DOLCissiMO  {It.).    Extremely  sweet  and  soft. 
DoLORE  {It.).     Grief,  sorrow. 

Dominant.  The  fifth  note  of  the  scale  ;  thus  the  dominant  of 
C  is  G,  and  the  dominant  of  F  is  C. 

S^TJ't  %\  ^  \  Double,  twofold. 
DopPEL  {Ger.)  )  ' 

Double  bar.  The  double  line  drawn  through  the  staff,  to 
divide  one  strain  or  movement  from  another. 

Double  bass.  Tiie  largest  of  stringed  instruments  played 
with  a  bow. 

Double  bassoon.  The  largest  of  wood  wind  instruments, 
sounding  notes  an  octave  below  those  of  the  bassoon. 

Double  diapason.  An  organ  stop,  the  pitch  of  which  is  an 
octave  below  the  diapason's. 

Double  tonguing.  A  method  of  obtaining  a  quick  repeti- 
tion of  notes  upon  the  flute. 

Douloureux  {Fr.).     Sorrowful,  tender,  plaintive. 

Dritta  {If.).     Right ;  memo  dritta,  the  right  hand. 

Droite  (i'V.).     Rigiit;  as  main  droite,  right  Imnd. 

Drum.  An  instrument  used  in  most  bands,  the  beat  of  which 
accentuates  the  time  or  rhythm  of  the  music. 

Due  pedali  (It.).     Two  pedals  ;  both  pedals  to  be  used. 

Duet.     A  composition  for  two  performers. 

DuLCiANA.  An  organ  stop  of  soft,  sweet  tone,  the  pipes  being  of 
metal,  and  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  diapason— viz.,  8  feet. 

Duo  {It.).     Two;  in  two  parts  ;  for  two  performers. 

DuoLO  {It.).     Sudness,  sorrow,  grief. 

Duple  time.  Having  two  beats  in  a  bar.  1  or  S  ^'e  duple 
time. 

DuR  {Ger.).     Major  :  C dur,  the  key  of  C  major. 


E.     The  third  note  in  the  scale  of  C.  called  Mi  in  France  and 

llaly. 
E  {[!.).     And. 


134  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Echo  (Fr.).  A  repetition  {pianissimo)  of  a  musical  passage. 
In  large  organs  provision  is  sometimes  made  for  sucli  effects 
on  a  separate  key-board.  This  is  called  the  "  echo  "  organ, 
and  the  pipes  are  so  closed  in  as  to  give  the  tone  the  effect 
of  coming  from  a  distance. 

EcossAis  {Fr.).     Scotch  ;  an  air  in  the  Scotch  style. 

Eto  {It.).     And. 

E  DUR  {Oer.).     The  key  of  E  major. 

Eighth.    The  interval  of  an  octave. 

EiNMAL  {Ger.).     Once. 

EiNSTiMMEN  {Oer.).     Agreeing  in  pitch  ;  all  in  tune. 

Elegante  {It.).     Elegant,  graceful. 

Elegia  {It.).    An  elegy.    A  mournful,  dirge-like  composition. 

Elevato  {It.).    Lofty,  sublime. 

Embouchure  CFr.).  The  mouth-piece  of  wind  instruments, 
such  as  the  flute,  clarinet,  etc. 

E  MOLL  {Ger.).    The  key  of  E  minor. 

Encore  {Fi:).  Again.  The  cry  of  "encore"  at  concerts  sig- 
nifies a  desire  to  hear  the  singer  or  performer  again. 

Energetico  {It.).     Energetic  ;  with  force  and  emphasis. 

Enfler  {Fr.).     To  increase  the  tone. 

Enharmonic  {Gr.).  Denoting  a  change  of  name  which  does 
not  alter  the  pitch,  as — 


Ensemble  {Fr.).  Together,  the  whole  ;  a  term  used  in  speak- 
ing of  the  performance  of  a  concerted  piece  as  a  whole. 

Enunciato  {It.).    Enunciated,  proclaimed. 

Episodio  (It.).     Episode,  digression. 

E  poi  {It.).     And  then  :  e  jwi  la  coda,  and  then  the  coda. 

Equal  temperament.  A  term  applied  to  the  present  system 
of  tuning  pianos  and  organs,  whereby  all  keys  are  rendered 
equally  agreeable. 

Ernstlich  {Ger.).     Earnest,  fervent,  ardent. 

Es  DUR  {Ger.).     The  key  of  E  flat  major. 

Es  moll  (Ger.).     The  key  of  E  flat  minor. 

EsPRESsivo  (It.).     Expressive  ;  wiili  expression  and  feeling. 

EsPRESSiONE  {It.).     Expression,  feeling. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  135 

EsTmTO  (It.).    Dying  away,  becoming  faint,  expiring. 

EsTRAVAGANZA  (It.).     Extiuvagant,  Avlld. 

Etude  ( Fr.).     A  study. 

Etwas  {Ger.).  Some,  somewhat,  a  little  :  eticas  langsamer,  a 
little  slower. 

Euphonium.  An  important  member  of  the  family  of  brass  in- 
struments in  military  bands.     Its  part  is  bass  or  baritone. 

Executant  {Fr.).    A  musical  performer. 

Execution.  Skill  in  the  manipulation  of  an  instrument,  or  in 
the  management  of  the  voice. 

Expression.  Tlie  observance  of  light  and  shade,  and  all  other 
matters  of  finish  which  impart  soul  and  life  to  music. 

Extemporize.  To  compose  and  perform  right  on,  without 
previous  thought. 

RxTREME.  The  npper  and  lower  parts  of  a  composition  are 
called  the  extreme  parts.  It  was  customary  at  one  time 
also  to  call  keys  having  many  sharps  or  flats  in  the  signa- 
ture extreme  keys. 


F.  The  fourth  note  in  the  scale  of  C,  called  Fa  in  France  and 
Italy. 

Facilement  (F\).     Easily,  with  smoothness  and  ease. 

Fagottino  {It.).     A  small  bassoon.  . 

Fagotto  {It.).  Bassoon.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  reed 
stop  upon  the  organ.     {See  page  6.) 

False  relation.  A  term  used  to  describe  a  fault  in  com- 
position— viz.,  the  following  of  a  note  in  one  chord  with 
its  octave,  above  or  below,  cliromatically  altered,  thus — 


m^- 


Ct  following  Ctt  constitutes  the  fault. 


Falsetto  {It.).     The  high,  thin  notes  that  can  be  produced 
above  the  natural  compass  of  the  male  voice. 

{Fancy,  caprice.  A  fanciful  composition  in 
which  thoughts  follow  each  other  with- 
out regard  to  rules  which  govern  tlie 
form  of  other  compositions. 


136  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

F  CLEF.     The  name  by  which  the  bass  clef  is  known,  the  sign 
curling  around  the  line  F, 


F  DUR  {Oer.).     The  key  of  F  major. 

Ferma  {It.).    Firm,  strong. 

Feroce  {It.).     Fierce,  bold  ;  with  ferocity. 

Fertig  {Oer.).     Nimble,  quick. 

Festoso  {It.').     Cheerful,  festive,  gay. 

Fiddle.     The  violin  ;  also,  to  fiddle,  to  play  the  violin. 

FiERAMENTE  {It.).     Fiercely,  vehemently. 

Fife.  An  instrument  of  the  flute  species,  but  smaller,  and  of 
higher  pitch. 

Figured  bass.  A  bass  having  figures  beneath  it  which  indi- 
cate the  harmonies  to  be  constructed  upon  it. 

Fine  {It.).  The  end.  A  composition  concludes  where  the 
word  j^rae  is  placed. 

Fis  DUR  {Ger.).     The  key  of  F  sharp  major. 

Flageolet.  A  wind  instrument  fingered  like  the  flute  or  fife, 
but  blown  into  through  a  small  tube  shaped  mouthpiece. 
A  flute  head-piece  can  also  be  used  by  which  the  instru- 
ment is  converted  into  a  sort  of  fife  or  piccolo. 

Flauto  (It.).    Flute. 

Florid.     Ornamental,  embellished. 

Flute.  A  wind  instrument  of  sweet,  bird-like  tone,  having  a 
compass  extending  upwards  about  three  octaves  from  mid- 
dle C.  It  holds  an  important  place  in  orchestral  music, 
being  usually  the  highest  of  the  wind  instruments.  {See 
page  2.) 

Foco  {It.).     Fire,  animation. 

Forte  (It.).     Loud,  strong. 

Fortissimo  (It.).    Very  loud  ;  with  great  power. 

FoRZA  {It.).     Force,  vehemence,  power. 

Forzando  {It.).  Forced  ;  a  word  implying  stress  on  any  par- 
ticular notes.     Also  marked  >,  v ,  or  xf. 

Fretta  {It.}.     Haste,  speed,  becoming  quicker. 

Frets.  The  small  metal  bridges  raised  upon  the  finger-board 
of  the  guitar,  etc..  upon  which  the  strings  are  pressed  to 
l)roduce  notes  of  different  pitch. 

Freudig  {Oer.).     Joy  fulness. 

Fruiilingslted  {Ger.).     Spring  song. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  ISY 

Fug  A  {It.).    A  flight,  a  fugue. 

FuGATO  (/i?.)-     In  the  fugal  style. 

FuGHETTA  {It.).     A  short,  or  simple  fugue. 

Fugue.  A  movement  beginning  with  a  subject  iu  single  notes 
which  is  given  out  by  one  part  and  answered  by  other 
parts  in  turn,  the  subject  and  counter-subject  Being  ingen- 
iously woven  into  a  harmonious  whole.  The  most  scho- 
lastic of  all  forms  of  musical  composition. 

Full.     All  the  voices  ;  all  the  stops  of  the  organ,  etc. 

Full-score.  The  copy  containing  all  the  parts  for  orchestra 
and  chorus. 


FUNEBRE   {Fr.)  I  p,,„p,..„i 

FuNEREO  ilt.)    |i^""eieal. 

Fuoco  ilt.).    Fire,  passion,  energy. 

FuRioso  {It.),    Furious,  passionate. 


G.     The  fifth  note  -in  the  key  of  C  ;  called  Sol  in  France  and 

Italy. 
GaIMENT   {Fv.)       iriovlv 

gajamente  (/c.)  f^^y'y- 

Galop.     A  dance  measure  in  rapid  ^  time. 

Gamba  {It.).  The  name  now  given  to  an  organ  stop  of  metal 
pipes  and  eight- feet  pitch ;  derived  from  the  nol-cUgamba, 
an  obsolete  stringed  instrument  which  preceded  the  violon- 
cello. 

Gamut.     Tlie  musical  scale. 

Gaucue  {Fr.).     Left;  M.  G.,  main gauclie,  the  left  hand. 

Gavotte.  A  graceful  dance  measure  in  common  time,  and  ot 
moderate  pace. 

G  DUR  {Oer.).     Tlie  key  of  G  major.  .. 

Gedact.  Stopped.  A  term  applied  to  organ  stops,  the  pipes 
of  wliich  are  stopped  with  a  plug  at  the  end  usually  open. 
The  effect  of  stopping  tlie  pipes  is  to  deepen  tlxe  tone  an 
octave  ;  thus  the  sound  of  a  four-foot  pipe  stopped  is  the 
siinie  in  pitch  as  that  of  an  eight-foot  pipe  open. 

Geiieni)  {Oer.).  Moving  easily  ;  a  term  denoting  a  rate  of 
movement  similar  to  andante. 


138  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Geige  iGer.).    The  violin. 
Gelaupiq  (Ger.').    Fluent,  rapid. 
Gemaciilicii  (Ger.).     Slowly,  softly. 

Gems-iiorn  iGc)'.).    Goat,  or  chamois  horn.    A  name  now  given 
to  an  organ  stop  of  conical  metal  pipes  and  of  four- feet  tone. 
Gemuth  {Ger.).    Soul,  feeling  ;  mit  Gemuth,  with  much  feeling. 
Gentile  {It.).     Graceful,  noble,  pleasing. 
Gentilezza  {It.).     Grace,  refinement,  elegance. 
Gesang  {Ger.).     Singing  ;  a  song,  an  air  ;  the  art  of  singing. 
Ges  dur  {Ger.).    The  key  of  G  flat  major. 
Gewiss  {Ger.).    Firm,  resolute. 

GmuE^f^r.cfe  Ger.)  \  ^  ^^^^'^  '^'^^^'^  ™^*'"''«  ^"  I  ^'^  f  ^""«- 

GiocoNDO  {It.).    Jocund,  merry,  sportive. 

GiOJA  {It.).     Joy,  mirth. 

Gis  MOLL,  {Ger.).     The  key  of  G  sharp  minor. 

Giusto  {It.).     Exact;  tempo  giusto,  in  exact  time. 

Glee.  An  old  name  for  a  composition  of  a  lively  character  for 
three  or  more  voices. 

Glissando  {It.).  Smooth,  gliding.  On  the  pianoforte  a  pass- 
age played  by  drawing  tlie  finger  or  thumb,  or  both,  lightly 
along  the  keys,  pressing  them  do^n  with  the  nails. 

Glocke  {Ger.).     A  bell. 

G  MOLL  {Ger.).     The  key  of  G  minor. 

Graces,  or  Grace-notes.  The  notes  added  by  way  of  orna- 
mentation, usually  printed  in  small  type.  The  trill  and 
turn  also  belong  to  the  same  class. 

Gradevole  {It.).     Gracefully,  pleasantly. 

gSakdeI-^^-     G^-eat.  grand. 

Gran  cassa  (/<.).     The  big  drum. 

Grand  jeux  {Fr.).     The  name  of  a  harmonium  stop  which 

gives  the  full  power  of  the  instrument.     In  organ  music 

the  term  implies  all  the  stops. 
Grave  {It.).     Grave,  solemn,  slow.    A  low,  deep  tone. 
Grazia  {It.).     Grace,  elegance. 
Grazioso  (It.).     Graceful,  elegant. 
Great  organ.     In  organs  with  two  manuals,  the  lower  one  is 

called  the  great  organ,  because  its  pipes  are  of  larger  scale 

and  of  louder  tone  than  those  of  the  upper  manual. 


MUSICAL  TEKMS.  139 

Gregorian.  Belonging  to  the  time  of  St.  Gregory,  a  pope  of 
the  sixth  century.  Oregorian  tones,  melodic  forms  intro- 
duced into  the  Church  by  Gregory,  many  of  which  remain 
in  use  to  the  present  day. 

Guitar.  An  instrument  much  used  in  Spain,  and  said  to  have 
been  invented  in  that  country.  It  has  six  strings,  which  are 
plucked  by  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  the  tone  of  the  in- 
strument forming  an  agreeable  accompaniment  to  the  voice. 
The  accordatura  (strings  are  tuned)  is  : 

(Sounding  an  octave  lower.) 


I 


i 


5t ' 

H 


H.     In  Germany  the  note  B  natural  is  called  H. 

Halle  {Ger.).     Sound,  clangor. 

Hammer.  In  the  pianoforte,  the  wire  is  struck  by  what  is 
called  a  hammer.  There  is  a  row  of  these,  one  for  each 
note,  the  heads  covered  with  felt,  and  of  size  and  weight 
proportioned  to  the  length  of  the  wire. 

Harfe  (Oer.).     Harp. 

Harmonic  flute.  The  name  of  an  organ  stop,  the  pipes  of 
which  are  pierced  with  a  hole  at  a  point  midway  between 
the  mouth  and  open  end  of  the  pipe.  An  eight-foot  pipe 
thus  pierced  sounds  a  note  an  octave  above  that  of  an  ordi- 
nary eight-foot  pipe. 

Harmonics.  The  sounds  that  a  string  or  wire  gives  forth  when 
its  wave  is  divided  into  two,  three,  four,  or  any  number 
of  equal  parts.  Upon  the  violin,  if  the  string  be  lightly 
touched  in  the  middle,  and  the  bow  drawn  gently  across 
it,  the  first  harmonic  (i.e.,  the  octave  to  the  fundamental 
sound)  is  heard.  Upon  the  piano,  if  a  low  note  be  held 
down  (not  caused  to  sound),  and  the  note  an  octave  above 
be  struck  sharply,  and  at  once  loosed,  we  hear  this  iiote 
sounding  as  a  harmonic  upon  the  string  of  the  low  note  we 
are  holding.     This  experiment  may  be  repeated,  say  upon 

the  note  ^ :  with  all  the  following  notes,  each  of 


140 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


which  will  be  heard  separately  as  a  harmonic  upon  the  low 
F  we  are  holding  down.  If  all  the  notes  are  played  rapid- 
]y,  one  after  the  other,  the  complete  chord  of  six  notes  will 
be  distinctly  heard  sounding  upo7i  one  string: 


^*- 


^ 


Held  down  without  being  made  to  sound. 

Harmonium.  A  well-known  instrument,  the  sounds  of  which 
are  produced  from  reeds  or  metal  tongues  set  in  vibration 
by  wind  blown  from  bellows  worked  by  the  feet.  The  key- 
board of  the  instrument  is  similar  to  that  of  the  organ. 

Harmony.  The  name  of  that  branch  of  musical  studies  which 
treats  of  part  writing.     Agreeable  combination  of  sounds. 

Harp.  A  stringed  instrument  of  great  antiquity,  though  pop- 
ular in  its  perfected  form  at  the  present  time.  The  modern 
harp  has  a  diatonic  scale  of  over  six  octaves,  with  pedals 
for  chromatic  alterations  in  changes  of  key. 

Harpsichord.  An  instrument  which  in  Handel's  time  occu- 
pied the  place  now  held  by  the  pianoforte.  The  key-board 
was  similar  to  that  of  the  piano,  but  of  smaller  compass, 
and  the  wires  were  plucked  with  a  quill,  not  struck  with  a 
hammer  as  in  the  modern  instrument.  {See  page  15  ;  chap, 
iii.) 

Hautbois  (i^'.).     Oboe,  hautboy.     (See  page  5,  fig.  9.) 

H  dur  (Gcr.).     The  key  of  B  major. 

Heft  {Oer.).     Book. 

Heftig  (Ger.).     Impetuous,  vehement. 

Herzlich  {Oer.).     Delicatel^y,  tenderly. 

Hidden  consecutives.  Faulty  progressions  in  harmony  ;  the 
passage  of  two  voices  or  instruments  in  similar  motion  to 
a  perfect  fiftli  or  octave. 

H  moll  (Ger.).     The  key  of  B  minor. 

Hochzeit-marscii  (Ger.).     Wedding-march. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  141 

Horn.  A  brass  instrument  occupying  an  important  place  in 
the  modern  orchestra.  Its  tone  is  soft  and  of  beautiful 
quality.  The  natural  horn  is  of  restricted  compass  ;  the 
ventil-horn  {see  illustration)  is  provided  with  valves  or  pis- 
tons like  the  cornet,  rendering  chromatic  passages  possible. 
Italian,  corno. 

Hornpipe.  A  lively  dance  measure  in  quick  common  time.  A 
dance  usually  associated  with  British  sailors. 

HuRTiG  {Oer.).     Quickly. 

Hymn-tune.  A  form  of  composition  used  in  religious  services 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  The  measure  varies  con- 
siderably, owing  to  the  variety  of  metres  employed  in  the 
words.  They  are  mostly  known  by  names;  as,  "  TJie  Old 
Hundredth"  long  metre,  ''French"  short  metre,  etc. 


Iambic.  The  measure  of  verses  in  which  a  short  and  long 
syllable  are  alternately  employed. 

lr,{It.).     The.    /i  tesso,  the  bass ;  /^ ^m«,  the  most. 

Il  piu  forte  possible  {It.).    As  loud  as  possible. 

Imitation.  Compositions  in  which  the  parts  imitate  each 
other,  as  in  a  fugue,  though  with  less  strictness. 

Immer  ((rcr.).     Always,  ever. 

Imperfect  intervals.  Such  as  are  smaller  by  one  semitone 
than  perfect  intervals.  From  C  to  G  is  a  perfect  fifth  con- 
taining seven  semitones ;  from  C  to  G  flat  is  an  imperfect 
fifth,  containing  six  semitones  (i.  <?.,  diminished). 

Impeto  {It:).     Impetuosity,  vehemence. 

Impromptu  (F/-.).  Extempore,  without  premeditation.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  compositions  that  are  of  free,  un- 
studied form. 

Improvisation.     An  extempore  performance.       ^ 

I\  ALT  {It.).    The  notes  from  |!(^  — q  to  -_^ ^  ;  notes 

above  these  are  in  altissimo. 
Indeciso  (/<.).     Undecided  ;  with  uncertainty  of  time. 
In  pretta  (It.).     In  a  hurried  manner. 
Infuriante  (//.).     Furious,  with  auger. 


142 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Innocenza  (/it.).     Innocence,  simplicity. 

Instrumentation.  The  art  of  writing  for  the  band,  or  or- 
chestra.   Also  the  scoring  of  a  composition  for  instruments. 

In  tempo  (/<!.).     In  time. 

Interlude.  An  instrumental  passage  between  the  voice  parts 
of  an  anthem,  or  between  the  verses  of  a  song. 

Intermezzo.  Frequently  a  short  musical  piece  between  two 
acts  of  an  opera.  A  movement  coming  between  two 
others  of  greater  importance. 

Interval.  The  distance  between  two  sounds  of  different 
pitch. 

Intrepido  (It.).     Intrepid,  bold. 

Inversion.  Change  of  position.  The  iiFversion  of  an  interval 
consists  in  such  changes  as  the  following : 


inverted, 


C  was  the  bottom  note  in  the  first  case;  by  inversion  it 
becomes  the  top  note.  The  inversions  of  a  chord  are  sim- 
ilar; thus:  chord  on  F,  ^=S^  ; 


First  Inversion. 


Second  Inversios. 


lKA(7i!.).     Ire,  rage,  anger. 
Irato  (/i!.).     Irascibly,  angrily. 


Jager-lied  (Ger.).     Hunting-song. 

Jeu  (Fr.).     Play;  the  style  of  playing. 

Jeux  (Fr.).     Stops,  or  registers  in  organ  or  harmonium. 

Jews-harp.     A  small  metal  instrument  or  toy,  played  upon 

while  held  against  the  teeth,  a  metal  tongue  struck  with 

the  finger  producing  the  sound. 
Jig.     a  lively  dance,  or  dance  tune,  in  ^  or  t^  time. 

JoDELiN.     That  part  of  a  Tyrolean  air  sung  with  such  sounds  as 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  143 

Yo,  o,  or  la,  la,  in  which  male  voices  employ  the  falsetto 

tone  with  good  effect. 
JoiE  iFr.).  Joy,  gladness. 
Juste  {Ft.).    Accurate,  true,  with  perfect  intonation. 


KAMMER-MUSiK(G''e?'.).     Chamber- music  ;  music  for  home  or 

small  concert-room. 
Kapelle  {Oct.).    A  chapel. 
Kapell - MEiSTER  {Oei'.).     The  chief  musician  in  a  church, 

cathedral,  or  chapel. 
Keraulophon.     The  name  of  an  eight-feet  metal  organ  stop 

of  reedy  or  string  tone. 
Kettle  DRUM.     A  drum  having  only  one  parchment  surface 

for  striking,  the  shell  being  of  copper  and  rounded  at  the 

bottom  like  a  pan  or  kettle.     Two  of  these  are  employed 

in  the  orchestra,  tuned  to  different  notes,  most  frequently 

the  key-note  and  the  dominant. 
Key.     The  key  of  a  composition  is  that  which  is  expressed  in 

the  signature,  thus —  |-ct'  ^^ — \  denoting  the  scale  in  which 


a  composition  is  set,  the  key-note  being  the  first  note  of 
that  scale.  The  ivory  and  ebony  surfaces  played  upon  by 
the  lingers  in  organ,  piano,  etc.,  are  called  the  keys,  the 
whole  constituting  the  key-board. 

KiRCHEN-FEST  {Oer.).     Church  festival. 

Klang  {Oer.).     Sound,  tone,  tune. 

Klar  {Oer.).     Clear,  pure,  bright. 

Klavier  {Oer.).     The  key-board  of  piano  or  organ. 

Klein  {Oer.).  Elinor,  small.  Klein-bass-geige,  small  bass  fiddle, 
the  violoncello. 

Komponiren  {Oer.).     To  compose. 

Komponist  {Oer.).     Composer. 

KopPEL  {Oer.).  Coupler;  the  movement  in  an  organ  which 
couples  one  manual  with  another. 

Kraftig  {Oer.).     Loud,  vigorous,  energetic. 


144  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Kreuz  (Ger.).    The  name  for  J,  that  we  call  a  sJimy. 
Kreuz-doppeltks  (Ger.).    The  name  for   x,that  we  call  a 

double-s7iarp. 
Krumm  (G^er.).     Bent,  curved. 
Krumm-horn  (Ger.).     Crooked,  or  bent  horn  ;  a  small  cornet. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  an  eight-feet  reed  organ  stop. 


La.  The  name  by  which  A  is  called  in  solfeggi — i.e.,  singing 
to  the  sounds  do,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si. 

La  chasse  (Fr.).     In  the  hunting  style. 

La  destra  (It.).     The  right  hand. 

Lagrimoso  (/(f.).     Mournfully. 

Lamentabile  (it.).     Mournful,  lamentable. 

Langsam  (Ger.).     Slowly. 

Langsamer  {Ger.).     Slower. 

Languido  {It.).    Feeble,  in  a  languid  fashion. 

Largamente  (/(!.).     Large,  full  tone ;  in  a  broad  style. 

Larghetto  {It.).     Slow,  but  not  so  slow  as  Largo. 

Largo  {It.').     Slow,  large,  broad. 

Largo  ass  ax         \  iTt\     v.,r-^r  ci^„r 

Largo  Di  MOLTO  r^"^)-    ^"y^low. 

La  voce  {It.).     The  voice. 

Lay.     a  song,  an  air. 

Leading  note.  The  seventh  note  of  the  diatonic  scale :  B  is 
the  leading  note  in  the  key  of  C — E  in  the  key  of  F — F# 
in  the  key  of  G,  etc. 

Leben  {Ger.).     Life,  vivacity. 

Lebhaft  {Ger.).     Quick,  vivacious. 

Leger-lines.  The  short  lines  added  for  notes  above  and  be- 
low the  stave. 

Legato  {It.).     Slurred  ;  in  a  smooth,  gliding  manner. 

Leggerezza  {It.).     Lightness. 

Leggiero  {It.).    Light,  delicate. 

Lentando  {It.).     Slackening  the  time. 

Lento  {It.).     Slow. 

Lento  assai  {It.).    Very  slow. 

Lestezza  {It.).     Quickness,  nimbleness. 


MUSICAL  TERMS. 


145 


Libretto  (i^.).  Tlie  words  of  an  opera,  oratorio,  a  cantata,  or 
other  choral  work. 

LiEBLicH  (Ger.).    Sweet,  charming,  lovely. 

Lied  (Ger.).     Song. 

Lied  ohne  worte  (Ger.).  Song  without  words.  An  instru 
mental  piece  with  a  solo  (representing  a  voice  part),  and 
also  an  accompaniment. 

Lira  (It. ).     Lyre. 

L'istesso  (It.).     The  same. 

L'iSTESSo  TEMPO  (It.).  The  same  time  as  the  foregoing  move- 
ment. 

Loco  (It.).     Place;  used  after  8va indicating  a  return 

to  the  place  of  the  notes  as  written. 

Lung  A  pausa  (7i!.).     A  long  pause. 

LusiNGANDO  (It.).     Sweetly,  persuasively,  coaxingly. 

LusTio  {Ger.).  •  Gayly,  merrily,  cheerfully. 

Lute.  An  ancient  stringed  instrument,  now  superseded  by  the 
guitar. 

Lyre.    The  most  ancient  of  stringed  instruments.  {See  page  7.) 


M 

Madrigal.  A  form  of  composition  for  voices  alone  richly  con- 
tributed to  by  English  musicians  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
{See  page  76.)  Imitation  of  a  subject  in  all  the  parts  (as 
seen  in  the  example  below)  forms  a  special  feature  of  mad- 
rigal writing : 


146  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Maestoso  (It).    Majestically. 

Maesteo  (it.).  Master.  In  music  a  great  composer,  or  mas- 
ter of  the  art. 

Maggiore  (It.).     Major,  greater  ;  in  the  major  key. 

Main  {Fr.).     Hand. 

Major.     Greater.    In  intervals,  major  are  greater  than  minor. 

Malinconico  (/if.).     Melancholy. 

Mandoline.  A  stringed  instrument  in  shape  like  half  a  pear. 
It  has  wires  as  well  as  strings,  which  are  plucked  with  a 
tortoise-shell  or  horn  plectrum. 

Mano  {It.).  Hand  ;  mano  destra  or  dritta,  right  hand  ;  mano 
sinistra,  left  hand. 

Manual.     Key -board  of  organ,  piano,  etc. 

Marcato  (/<.).     Marked,  with  emphasis. 

Marcia  (It.).     A  march. 

Martellato  (It.).     Hammered,  struck  with  force.        „ 

Mazurka.  A  dance  measure  of  Polish  origin,  usually  in  2  time. 
It  is  of  moderate  pace,  and  graceful  in  character. 

Measure.     Time.     Also  a  bar,  or  the  music  of  a  bar. 

Mediant.  The  third  note  of  the  diatonic  scale  E  is  the  mediant 
of  the  key  of  C,  A  of  F,  B  of  G,  etc. 

Melody.     A  succession  of  single  sounds  in  pleasing  form. 

Meme  (P'r.).     The  same.     Menu  moiirement,  the  same  in  time. 

Meno  (It.).     Less.     Meno forte,  less  loud.  „ 

Menuetto  (Oer.).  A  graceful,  slow  dance  measure  in  ^  time, 
much  used  in  composition  by  the  old  masters. 

Mestoso  {It.).     Sadly,  mournfully.    . 

Metronome.  A  mechanical  contrivance,  usually  clockwork, 
for  giving  beats  at  whatever  number  per  minute  may  be 
required.  A  note  followed  bj-  a  figure,  thus,  J  =  66,  at  the 
commencement  of  a  composition,  is  called  the  metronome 
mark.  This  denotes  the  exact  rate  of  the  movement,  sixty- 
six  quarter-notes  per  minute.  Setting  the  weight  of  the 
metronome  to  this  figure,  the  pendulum'  swings  at  the 
rate  of  sixty-six  beats  per  minute,  and  at  this  pace  the 
quarter-notes  of  the  movement  must  be  played. 

Mezzo  (^It.).     Half,  medium. 

Mezzo  forte  {It.).     Moderately  loud  ;  written  mf. 

Mezzo  soprjVno  (it.).  A  soprano  of  medium  compass,  not  so 
high  as  soprano,  but  higher  than  contralto. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  147 

Mezzo  staccato  (It.).    The  notes  detached,  but  not  so  much 

as  when  marked  staccato. 
Mezzo  voce  (/C).     Half  the  voice. 
MiLiTARE  (It.).     Military  ;  in  a  warlike  spirit. 
MiNOH.     Less.     In  intervals,  minor  are  less  than  major. 

Minuet.  A  graceful,  slow  dance  measure  in  2  time,  much  used 
in  composition  by  the  old  masters. 

MiT  (Ger.).     With,  by. 

MiT  viELER  INNIGKEIT  QOer.).     With  much  feeling. 

Mixture.  The  name  of  an  organ  stop  having  several  ranks  of 
pipes  ;  it  should  be  used  only  with  the  full  organ,  to  which 
it  imparts  much  brightness. 

MoDERATO  (It.).     In  moderate  time. 

Modulation.  A  smooth  passage  through  a  succession  of  har- 
monies from  one  key  to  another.  Modulation  of  tone  is 
the  passing  from  one  degree  of  power  to  another. 

Moll  (Get:).  "Minor. 

Musette  (Fr.).  An  instrument  resembling  the  bagpipes,  but 
smaller  and  less  powerful.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
movement  of  a  dance-like  character  with  a  drone  bass. 

Music  Sounds  which  move  and  combine  according  to  recog- 
nized laws.  The  art  of  expressing  thought  and  feeling 
through  instrumental  and  vocal  sounds. 

Musicals  {It.).     Belonging  to  music  ;  musical. 

Mute.  An  implement  of  brass  or  other  substance  which  when 
placed  upon  the  bridge  of  a  violin,  violoncello,  etc.,  con- 
siderably softens  the  tone. 


Nacht-musik  (Ger.).     Night-music;  serenade. 

NfivEf^V.)|^'^"«««'  ^•'"Pl'''  "^t^'-'-^l- 

Natur.vl.     The  sign  fl  used  after  a  sharp  or  flat,  when  the 

white  key  or  natural  note  of  the  scale  is  again  required. 
Negligente  (Ft.).     Negligent,  unrestrained. 
Ninth.     An  interval  embracing  one  note  beyond  the  octave. 
Nocturne.     A  night  song  or  piece.     A  slow,  graceful  form  of 

composition  generally  for  a  solo  instrument,  most  common- 


148 


GUIDE   TO  MUSIC. 


ly  the  piano.  The  Nocturnes  by  Chopin  are  by  far  the 
best  known  among  such  compositions. 

NoN  (It.).     Not,  no  ;  non  molto  allegro,  not  very  quiclt. 

NoN  Tuoppo  {It.).  Not  too  mucli.  Allegro,  ma  non  troppo, 
quick,  but  not  too  quick. 

Notation.  The  system  of  indicating  music  by  written  char- 
acters. Staff  notation  is  that  written  upon  five  lines,  and 
in  tlie  characters  here  given  : 


this  is  also  called  the  old  notation.    The  new  notation,  or 
tonic  sol-fa,  is  that  which  is  indicated  by  letters,  thus : 

I  Id'     :m'     :l.d'|t.d>     :  r'.s,l  :  t,d'.r',m'  | 

iSee  "Tonic  Sol-fa.") 

NoTTURNO  {It.).    {See  "Nocturne.") 

Nuances  {Fr.,  pi.).  The  touches  of  finish,  light,  and  shade, 
increase  and  decrease,  etc.,  which  impart  feeling  and  ex- 
pression to  music. 


Obbligato  (/i!.).  Indispensable;  a  part  which  cannot  be  omit- 
ted. Unless  the  obbligato  be  played,  the  composition  is 
incomplete. 

Ober  (Oer.).  Upper,  higlier.  Ober  icerk  in  old  organ  music 
means  the  upper  manual — i.e.,  the  Oreat  Organ,  which,  be- 
fore the  days  of  the  Siccll  Organ,  was  the  upper  manual; 
the  Choir,  called  tlie  Positic,  being  the  lower. 

Oblique  motion.  One  part  rising  or  falling  while  another  part 
remains  stationar}^  as : 


Oboe.    A  wind  instrument  of  great  importance  in  the  orchestra. 
It  is  of  wood,  and  has  a  double  reed.     {See  page  5,  fig.  9.) 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  149 

An  organ  stop,  eight -feet  reed,  which  imitates  the  oboe 
tone,  also  bears  this  name. 

Ocarina.  A  small  wind  instrument  blown  into  through  a 
short  projecting  tube,  the  scale  being  fingered  upon  holes. 

Octave.  An  interval  of  eight  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale,  as 
from  C  to  C  above,  or  D  to  D,  etc. 

OcTETT.     A  composition  in  eight  parts. 

CEuvRE  (i^>.).  Work,  composition.  Chef-d'muiyre,  principal 
work. 

Offertoire  {Fr. ).  A  piece  played  or  sung  during  the  collec- 
tion of  the  offertory. 

Open  diapason.  The  principal  stop  in  an  organ,  having  metal 
pipes  of  eight-feet  pitch  ;  these  usually  stand  in  the  front 
of  the  case,  unless  the  organ  contains  a  sixteen-foot  open 
diapason.  An  open  diapason  of  sixteen  feet  tone,  and  also 
one  of  thirty -two-feet  tone  are  to  be  found  in  the  pedal  or- 
gan of  large  instruments.     (See  pp.  63,  67,  68,  and  69.) 

Open  note.  The  note  from  the  full,  open  string  of  violin, 
etc.;  also  a  free,  unrestTained  sound. 

Opera  {It.).  The  most  important  of  all  works  embodying  in- 
strumental music,  with  vocal  solos  and  choruses  to  be  de- 
livered with  suitable  scenic  display  and  action.  The  term 
also  signifies  work,  as  op.  24,  opera  24,  or  opvs  24,  the 
twenty-fourth  work  of  the  composer. 

Opiiicleide.  a  deep-toned  brass  instrument  of  powerful  tone 
and  extensive  compass.  In  the  orchestra  it  frequently 
forms  a  low  bass  to  the  three  trombones.  Also  a  reed  stop 
on  the  organ,  usually  the  pedal  organ,  of  sixteen-feet  scale. 

Opus  {Lat.  and  Oer.).    Work,  composition;  op.  4,  fourth  work. 

Oratorio  (It.).  The  most  important  of  sacred  choral  works, 
the  text  usually  being  from  Holy  Writ. 

Orchestra  (.It.).  The  seats  rising  from  the  platform  in  a  con- 
cert-hall on  which  the  members  of  the  band  and  choir  sit 
at  performances.  Also  the  place  in  front  of  the  stage  at  a 
theatre  where  the  musicians  of  the  band  sit.  The  term  also 
denotes  the  players  themselves,  the  Avhole  band. 

Orchestration.  The  work  of  scoring  a  composition  for  the 
band. 

Organ.  The  finest  and  largest  of  wind  instruments.  Pipes  of 
metal  and  wood  give  forth  the  varied  tones,  these  being 


150  GUIDE   TO  MUSIC. 

coutrolled  from  key-board  and  stops  manipulated  by  the 
performer,  the  wind  coming  from  bellows  blown  by  hand, 
or  by  aras,  water,  or  electric  engines.  {See  chap,  viii., 
page  62.) 

Ornamenti  (It.,  pi.).     Ornaments,  embellishments,  etc. 

OssxA  {It.').  Or,  otherwise.  Placed  before  a  passage  given  as 
an  alternative  to  the  one  in  the  text,  either  of  which  may 
be  played  or  sung. 

Ottava  {It.).     An  octave  ;  an  eighth. 

Ottava  alta  {It.).    Octave  higher;  abbreviated  thus:  8va 

Ottava  bassa  {It.).  Octave  lower ;  abbreviated  thus :  8va  bassa. 

Overture.  The  instrumental  piece  which  commences  an  op- 
era, oratorio,  or  a  cantata.  A  concert  overture  is  one  com- 
posed for  independent  performance. 


r  An  ancient  instrument  made  of  hollow  reeds, 
Pandean  pipes  J  cut  to  different  lengths,  stopped  at  one  end, 
Pan's  pipes        1      and  blown  across  at  the  other  by  the  play- 

[     er.     {See  page  2,  fig.  1.) 

?ir.S?2}<^')-    As  it  spoken, 

Partitur  {Ger.).    Full  score  of  orchestral  composition. 

Part  song.  A  composition  for  different  voices  in  three,  four, 
or  more  parts,  the  most  useful  and  common  form  being  the 
four-part  song,  for  S.A.T.B. — i.e..  Soprano,  Alto,  Tenor, 
and  Bass. 

Passacaglio  {It.)  )  A  slow  triple-time  dance  tune  in  the  minor 

Passacaille  {Fr.) )     key. 

Passing  notes.  Notes  not  belonging  to  the  harmony,  but 
which  serve  to  connect  one  harmony  with  another,  or  im- 
part interest  to  the  melodic  form. 

Passionate  {It.)  )  Passionate,  with  fervor,  with  intense  feel- 

Passionato  {It.)  \     ing. 

Pastorale  {II.).  Pastoral,  rural ;  a  melody  of  a  sweet,  soft 
character,  suggestive  of  shepherd  life. 

plTlETiQuf  ■  (F..)  [  P^^b^tic,  With  pathos. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  151 

Pausa  (/)!.).     A  pause. 

Pause.  The  sign  /^  indicating  that  the  note  over  or  under 
■wbicli  it  is  placed  should  be  dwelt  upon. 

Pedale  (It.).     A  stationary,  or  pedal  bass. 

Ped.  In  pianoforte  music  means  that  the  sustaining  pedal  is 
to  be  used  ;  the  mark  *  indicating  the  point  where  it  should 
be  loosed.  In  organ  music  the  same  word  denotes  that  the 
part  is  to  be  played  with  the  feet  upon  the  pedal  organ. 

Pentatonic  scale,  a  scale  embracing  the  octave,  but  having 
only  five  notes  : 


^^^^^^ 


the  tonic,  super -tonic,  mediant,  dominant,  sub -mediant, 
and  upper  tonic.  The  ordinary  sub-dominant  and  leading 
notes  are  omitted. 

Percussion.  Striking.  Instrutrients  of  percussion  such  us  are 
struck  by  the  performer— as  the  drum,  the  piano,  the  tri- 
angle, etc. 

Perdendosi  (It.).  Dying  away,  slackening  the  speed,  and 
decreasing  the  power. 

Perfect.     A  term  applied  to  intervals,  such  as  : 


$ 


the  nature  of  which  does  not  change  by  inversion.    A  per- 
fect fourth  by  inversion  becomes  a  perfect  fifth,  a  perfect  • 
fifth  becomes  a  perfect  fourth.    With  otlier  intervals  there 
is  a  change  of  nature,  all  major  intervals  by  inversion  be- 
coming minor,  and  all  minor  becoming  major. 

Pesante  ili.).     Heavy,  broad,  ponderous. 

Phrase.  A  group  of  notes  embodying  a  musical  idea ;  a  musi- 
cal sentence. 

Phrasing.  The  art  of  revealing  the  soul  and  meaning  of 
music  through  an  intelligent  rendering  of  its  separate  sen- 
tences.    {See  page  41.) 

PiACERE  (It.).  Pleasure,  fancy.  A  piacere,  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  performer. 

PiACEVOLE  {It.).    Pleasing,  graceful. 


152  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Pianissimo  {It.).  Very  soft ;  much  softer  than  piano.  This 
word  is  represented  in  music  by  pp. 

Piano  {It.').     Soft,  gently;  represented  in  music  by  p. 

Pianoforte.  Tlie  most  widely  used  of  all  musical  instru- 
ments. It  succeeded  the  harpsichord,  the  wires  of  which 
were  plucked  by  a  quill.  In  the  piano  they  are  struck  by 
a  hammer,  thus  enabling  the  performer  to  obtain  piano 
and  forte  effects.     Hence  its  name  pianoforte. 

Piccolo.     A  small,  or  octave  flute. 

Piu  (/it.).  More;  piu  allegro,  more  quickly;  piu  forte,  more 
loudly ;  piu  lento,  more  slowly ;  piu  vivo,  more  life. 

Pizzicato  (/<.).  Pinched;  applied  to  passages  for  the  violin, 
etc.,  the  notes  of  which  are  to  be  played,  not  with  the  bow, 
but  by  the  fingers  plucking  the  string. 

Placido  {It.).    Placid,  calm,  tranquil. 

Poco  {It.).     Little;  poco  crescendo,  a  little  louder. 

Polka.  A  common  dance  measure  in  3  time.  The  chords  of 
accompaniment  to  the  tune  fall  upon  the  first  three  eighth- 
notes  of  the  bar,  the  last  eighth-note  beat  being  silent  in 
the  bass. 

PoMPOSO  {It.).     Stately,  pompous. 

Portamento.  A  term  now  signifying  the  carrying  of  the 
voice  or  tone  from  one  note  to  the  other  ;  a  gliding  from 
tone  to  tone.     {See  page  60. ) 

Posaune  {Oer.).  A  trumpet,  or  trombone.  A  name  given  to 
a  reed  stop  of  trumpet-like  tone  in  the  organ. 

Positiv  {Ger.).     The  choir  organ. 

PosTLUDE.  A  name  frequently  given  to  organ  voluntaries  to 
be  played  after  the  service. 

Precentor.    Director,  or  leader  of  the  choir. 

Precipitato  {It.).     Hurriedl3^ 

Precisione  {It.).     Precision,  accuracy. 

Prelude.     An  instrumental  introduction. 

Prestissimo  {It.).     With  extreme  rapidity. 

Presto  {It.).    Very  rapid. 

Primo  (it.).  First,  chief.  In  duets  the  upper  part  is  marked 
primo. 

Principal.  An  organ  stop  of  four-feet  scale  with  metal  pipes, 
forming  the  octave  to  the  diapason. 


MUSICAL   'n-JKMS.  153 

PRONUNZIATO  (/if.).     Pionoiiuced.     Willi  distinct  enunciation 
Psalm-tune.    {See  "Hymn-tune.") 
PuNTA  d'arco.     Point  of  the  bow. 


Quadrille  {Fr.).  The  music  which  accompanies  a  square  or 
four-sided  dance.  It  is  divided  into  five  movements,  each 
of  which  is  in  quick  5  or  g  time. 

rJ^t^I!^^,^  in  .,\  I-  -A-  composition  for  four  performers. 
QuARTETT  {Ger.)  )  ^  ^ 

Quaver  {eighth-note).    A  note  half  the  length  of  a  quarter-note. 

Quintet.    A  composition  for  five  performers. 


Rallentando  {It.).     Slower  and  softer  by  degrees. 

Rapidamente  (/;;.).     Rapidly. 

r  A  passage  in  which  the  words  should  be 

Recitative         J      sung  or  declaimed  with  great  clearness, 

Recitativo  {It.)  j      the  time  and  measure  of  the  written  notes 
[     not  being  strictly  observed. 

Register.  A  part  of  the  compass  of  a  voice,  as  middle  register, 
the  notes  of  one  quality  and  production  in  the  middle  part 
of  the  voice ;  the  Imc  register,  the  deep  chest-notes.  In  the 
organ,  a  row  of  pipes  ;  also,  the  stops. 

Relative  minor.  The  relative  minor  to  any  given  major  key 
is  that  which  has  the  same  key  signature.  Thus,  the  rela- 
tive minor  of  A  is  P  sharp,  the  key  signature  of  A  major 

and  F  sharp  minor  both  being    ^^t=- 

Resoluto  {It.).    Boldly,  resolutely. 
Resonance.     Quality  of  resounding,  reverberating. 
Rests.     Signs  representing  silence. 
RiGORE  {It.).     Rigor,  strict  and  firm  in  time  and  note. 
RisoLUTo  {It.).    Boldly,  resolutely. 

RiTARDANDO  {It.).     Delaying,  or  holding  back  in  lime;  slack- 
ening the  speed. 
RiTENUTO  {It.).    Becoming  at  once  slower. 


154  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

^n\m^rvrm-  ^  (  -^  name  frequently  given  to  a  slow,  song-like 

KOMANCE  t^-P.' .n      composition  for   piano,  violin,  or  violon- 

ROMANZA  at.-)  I      cello  and  piano. 

Rondo  (It.).  A  bright  species  of  movement  in  which  the  prin- 
cipal subject  comes  round  again  and  again,  always  occur- 
ring in  the  same  key,  that  in  which  the  composition  is  set. 
Rondino,  a  short,  easy  rondo. 

Round.  A  composition  for  three  or  more  voices,  so  arranged 
that,  although  each  singer  has  the  same  part,  by  starting 
one  behind  the  other  a  harmonious  effect  is  produced. 

RuBATO  (it.).  Robbed.  Tempo  rubato,  shghtly  altering  the 
time,  robbing  a  note  here  and  there  of  part  of  its  length 
for  purposes  of  expression. 


Saucionau   )  A  sweet,  soft  eight-feet  organ  stop,  the  pipes  being 

Salicional  \     of  metal,  and  the  tone  of  Gamba-like  quality. 

Saltando  {It.).   Leaping,  jumping;  going  skippingly. 

Sakaband.     An  old  Spanish  dance  in  ^  time. 

Sax-horn.  A  form  of  brass  instrument  introduced  by,  and 
named  after,  M.  Sax ;  Saxophones,  Suxotrombas,  and  Sax- 
tubas  being  other  forms  of  brass  instruments  also  intro- 
duced by  him. 

Scale.  Consecutive  sounds  from  one  note  to  the  octave  above. 
A  diatonic  scale  is  one  proceeding  by  tones  and  semitones: 


f 


=-3 «^ 


# 


A  cliromatie  scale  proceeds  entirely  by  semitones 


-?s-^-B^^^°— 


Jj^     c-fe: 


Sciierzando  {It.).    Playful,  gay,  sportive. 
Scherzo  {It.).    Play,  sport ;  a  gay,  sportive  movement, 
SCHERZOSO  [It.).    Merry,  playful. 
ScHMERZ  (Oer.).     Sorrow,  grief. 
ScHNELL(G'er.).     Quickly. 

Score.    The  copy  of  any  work  in  wliich  all  the  parts,  both 
vocal  and  instrumental,  are  written. 


MUSICAL  TERMS. 


165 


Secondo  {It.).    Second.    In  a  pianoforte  duet  the  bass  part  is 

marked  secondo. 
Segno  {It.).     Sign.     Al  segno,  go  back  to  the  sign.     The  sign 

usually  employed  is  •jg.- 
Sehu  (G^e?'.).     Very,  much. 

Sehr  lebhaft  {Ger.').    Very  lively ;  with  much  animation. 
Semi  (Z(Z<.).     Half.     /Ssmifirece  c,  half  a  breve ;  xSewttowe,  half 

a  tone. 
Semi-chorus.    For  half,  or  part  of  the  choir. 
Semiquaver  (sixteenth-note).     Half  a  quaver. 
Semplice  {It.).     Simple,  sweet,  unpretentious. 
Sempre  {It.).     Always,  continually. 
Sempre   legato   (It.).      Always   smooth,  continue   to    play 

smoothly. 
Sempre  piu  forte  (It.).     Continually  growing  in  power, 
Senza  (It.).    Without. 
Senza  pedale  (It.).    Without  the  pedals. 
Senza  sordino  (It.).     Without  the  mute. 
Septet.     A  composition  for  seven  performers. 
Sequence.     A  number  of  similar  chords  in  succession. 
Serioso  {It.).     Serious,  grave. 
Sestet.     A  composition  for  six  performers. 
Sforzando  (It.).    Forced.     Abbreviated  thus  sf.;  the  note  or 

chord  over  which  it  is  placed  to  be  strongly  accented. 
Shake,  or  Trill. 


^m 


{See  page  48.) 
Sharp.     Written  J,  the  note  following  becomes  one  semitone 

higher  in  pitch. 
Side  drum.    The  drum  slung  at  the  side  of  the  performer. 
Signature.     The  key  signature  in  music  follows  the  sign  of 


the  clef ; 


I 


I?       I,  two  flats  here  form  the  key  signature  B 


flat.     {See  page  26.) 
Simile  (It.).    Alike,  in  similar  fashion;  continued  as  once  in- 
dicated. 


156  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC, 

Sm  'al  fin  {It.).    To  the  end. 

Sinistra  mano  {It.).    Left  hand. 

Si  segue  (/(!.)•     Go  on. 

Slentando  {It.).     Gradually  slower. 

Slur.  A  smooth  passage  from  note  to  note,  indicated  by  a 
curved  line. 

Smorzando  {It.).    Smothered,  rendered  inaudible,  dying  away. 

SoLENNE  {It.).     Solemn. 

Solfeggi  {It., pi.).  Vocal  exercises  in  which  the  syllables  do 
for  C,  re  for  D,  me  for  E,/a  for  F,  sol  for  G,  la  for  A,  si  for 
B  are  used.    (For  origin  of  these  syllables,  see  page  74.) 

Solo.     A  part  for  one  performer. 

Sonata.  An  important  form  of  composition  consisting  of 
three  or  four  movements  in  varied  styles.  The  sonatas 
for  piano  by  Beethoven  are  perhaps  the  best-known  ex- 
amples of  this  form.  Sonatas  in  which  the  violin  plays  a 
part  are  usually  of  duet  form,  the  piano  having  an  equally 
important  part  to  play. 

Sonatina  {It.).    A  short,  easy  sonata. 

Song.  An  air  for  the  voice,  with  an  accompaniment  for  the 
piano,  or  other  instrument. 

Soprano.     The  highest  female  voice.     Soprani,  plural. 

Sordino  {It.).  A  mute.  The  mute  of  the  violin,  which  is 
usually  of  brass,  is  placed  upon  the  bridge  of  tlie  instru- 
ment to  subdue  its  tone. 

Sostenuto  {It.).     Sustaining  notes  to  their  fullest  length. 

SoTTO  voce  {It.).     A  low,  soft  tone. 

Spirito  {It.).     Spirit,  life.     Con  spirito,  with  spirit. 

Staccato  {It.).  Detached,  separated;  the  notes  to  be  short 
and  light. 

Stave.     The  five  parallel  lines  upon  which  music  is  written. 

Still  ((?er.).     Calmly,  softly. 

Stopped  diapason.  An  organ  stop,  the  pipes  of  which  are  of 
wood,  stopped  with  a  plug  at  the  end  usually  open.  {See 
"Lieblich  Gedact,"  page  68.) 

Stretto  {It.).  Pressed,  contracted ;  parts  closely  following 
each  other. 

Stringendo  (It.),    Pressing  along,  becoming  faster. 

Stuck  ((r^r.).     Piece,  air,  tune. 

SuAViTA  {It.).    Sweetness,  delicacy. 


MUSICA.L  TERMS.  167 

SuBiTO  (/(!.).     Immediately,  at  once. 

Sub-tonic.  The  note  below  the  tonic.  B  is  the  sub-tonic  of 
the  key  of  C — E  of  F,  and  so  on. 

SuPEU-TONic.  The  note  above  the  tonic.  D  is  the  super-tonic 
of  the  key  of  C — G  of  F,  and  so  on. 

Swell.  To  increase  in  power  of  tone.  The  Swell  organ  is 
enclosed  within  a  box,  the  front  of  which  has  Venetian 
shutters,  which  are  opened  and  sliut  by  the  performer, 
thus  causing  the  tone  to  swell  out,  or  die  away. 

Symphony.  The  most  important  form  of  composition  for  a 
full  orchestra,  consisting  of  several  movements  in  varied 
styles,  such  as  an  allegro,  an  andante,  sometimes  an  adagio, 
or  slow  funeral  march,  a  minuet,  or  scherzo,  and  a  final 
allegro.  * 

Syncopation.  A  displacement  of  the  natural  accent  by  means 
of  ties.     {See  page  46.) 

T 

Tabor.     A  small  drum. 

Tambourine.  A  simple  instrument,  having  a  rim  of  wood 
upon  which  parchment  is  stretclied,  which,  being  beaten 
with  tlie  hand,  sounds  like  a  small  drum.  A  jingling  ac- 
companiment is  produced  by  loose  pieces  of  thin  brass 
around  the  rim. 

Tanz  (Oer.).    A  dance.  ^ 

Tarentella.     a  quick  dance  measure  in  g  time. 

Tema  (/if.).     A  theme,  an  air,  a  subject. 

Tempo  (/i!;.).  Time,  measure.  Tempo,  di  raise,  in  the  time  of 
a  valse.     A  tempo,  in  time. 

Tempo  giusto  (//.).     In  exact  time. 

Tempo  primo  {It.).  Time  as  at  first,  or  same  as  first  part  of 
movement. 

Tenerezza  {It.).     Tenderness,  softness. 

Tenou.  Tbe  male  voice  of  high  range.  The  Viola  is  some- 
times called  the  Tenor. 

Tenuto  {It.).    Hold,  prolong;  held  on,  sustained. 

Terzetto  {It.).     A  short  vocal  trio. 

Tiiema  {Ger.).     A  theme,  an  air,  a  subject. 

Theory.  In  music,  tliat  which  treats  of  the  science  of  its  con- 
struction, or  the  art  of  composition. 


158  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Timbre  {Fi'.).     Quality  of  sound. 

Timpani  (It.,  pi.).     Drums.     {See  "Keltle-drum.") 

Toccata  {It.').    A  prelude  in  florid  style. 

Tonic.     The  key-note  of  the  scale. 

Tonic  sol-fa.  A  system  of  notation  extensively  used  in  sing- 
ing, it  being  specially  adapted  for  this  purpose.  Tlie  tonic, 
or  key-note,  is  always  called  do.  First  lessons  in  sight- 
reading  are  usually  given  from  what  is  called  a 

MODULATOR 
d'  f 

t  m'  1 


B 
f 

m 

le 


8 

DOH 
TE 

f 

ta 

m 

LAH 

la 

se 

r 

SOH 

ba 

d 

FAH 

t, 

ME 

RAY 


d 

fe  ti 


de 


S| 

DOH 

f, 

ti 

m. 

fl 

m, 

ri 

ri 

S| 

d, 

MUSICAL  TERMS.  159 

By  means  of  this  also  the  principles  of  modulation  from 
one  key  to  another  are  demonstrated.    Initial  letters  repre- 
sent the  notes  of  the  diatonic  scale  in  printed  music  ;  thus, 
DOii,  ME,  son  are  printed  d    m    s. 
Time  is  represented  by  dividing  the  bar  into  spaces  ;  for 

common  time   four,  thus      :    |    :      ,   triple  time  three — 

:      :      ,  and  so  on. 

The  duration  of  notes  is  indicated  as  follows :  a  note  of 

two  beats'  length,    d  :  —  |  :     ;  three  beats,   d  ;  —  |  —  :     ; 

four  beats,     d  :  —  |  —  :  —    ;  the  empty  spaces  indicate 
rests. 
For  half -beats  the  space  is  divided  by  a  dot,     d  :  d.d  | 

d  :  d.d    ;  the  two  notes  in  space  two  and  four  are  sung  to 
one  beat. 


The  notation  for  all  keys  is  the  same,  thus :  -^     ]   J  j'  ^ 


Key  c 
is  rendered  in  tonic  sol-fa   d  :  m  |  s :     and 


^ 


^ 


^ 


KEYFJt 

in  tonic  sol-fa    d  :  m  |  s  :      ,  tliere    being  no  difference 

in  the  writing  of  the  notes,  but  only  in  the  statement  of 

key. 
The  system  was  founded  and  popularized  by  the  late 

John  Curwen. 
TosTO  (/<.).     Quick,  rapid. 
TuANQUiLLO  {It.').     Tranquil,  calm,  quietness. 
TuANSiTioN.     Passing  from  one  key  to  another. 
Transposition.     Change  of  key. 
Transpose.    Playing  or  singing  in  a  different  key  to  that  in 

which  the  music  is  written. 
Treble.     The  upper,  or  highest  voice. 


160 


GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 


Tkiad.    a  chord  of  three  notes,  a  root-note,  with  its  third  and 
fifth  above,  as: 


f 


W: 


Triangle.  A  small  steel  instrument  of  percussion,  having  a 
bell-like  tone. 

Trillo  (It.).    A  shake,  a  trill. 

Trio.  A  piece  for  three  instruments.  The  piano,  the  violin, 
and  violoncello  are  more  frequently  combined  in  trios  than 
other  instruments.  Trio  is  also  llie  name  given  to  the 
second  movement  of  a  minuet,  scherzo,  etc.,  so  called 
formerly  because  three  instruments  only  were  employed  in 
its  performance. 

Triplet.     A  group  of  three  notes  occupying  the  time  of  two. 

Trombone.  A  powerful  brass  instrument,  three  kinds,  alto, 
tenor,  and  bass,  being  scored  for  in  orchestral  music.  {See 
page  3.) 

Troppo  (7(5. ).     Too  much;  non  troppo,  not  too  much. 

Trumpet.  A  most  important  brass  instrument  in  the  orchestra. 
Obbligato  parts  are  often  assigned  to  this  instrument, 
notable  instances  being  "The  trumpet  shall  sound,"  and 
"Let  the  bright  Seraphim." — Handel.  In  full  brass  pas- 
sages the  trumpet  takes  the  highest  part. 

Tune.  A  short  air,  a  melody.  To  tune,  to  set  the  strings  of 
harp,  violin,  etc.,  at  the  proper  pitcli.  In  tune,  true  into- 
nation. 

Turn.     An  embellishment  represented  thus  ■^.   {See  page  47.) 

Tutti  {It.).     All ;  the  full  band  or  chorus. 


Una  {It.).     A,  an,  one  ;  una  corda,  one  string;  used  in  piano- 
forte music  to  signify  the  soft  pedal. 


MUSICAL  TERMS.  161 

Unison.    Sounds  in  perfect  accord,  being  the  same  in  pitch; 
•written 


# 


Variations 
Variationen  {Ger.) 
Variazioni  {It.) 


Un  poco  {It.).    A  little.     Un  poco  ritardando,  slackening  the 

speed  a  little. 
Ut.     The  name  or  syllable  by  which  the  note  C  was  originally 

called,  and  by  which  name  it  is  still  known  in  France. 


Valse  {Fr.).     A  waltz;  a  bright,  graceful  composition  in  ^ 

time.  A  common  form  of  waltz  music  is  used  for  the 
dance.  A  higher  form  of  the  same  measure  is  much  fa- 
vored in  pianoforte  music,  the  waltzes  of  Chopin  being 
among  the  best  examples  of  such  compositions. 

f  Altered  forms  of  presenting  an  air,  or 
a  theme.     Andante  con  Variazione,  a 
simple  melody  followed  by  a  set  of 
variations  in  florid  style,  each  con- 
taining some  new  forms,  but  all  pre- 
serving, embodying,  or    suggesting 
the  same  theme. 
Veloce  (It.).     Swiftly^  with  great  rapidity. 
Verse.     In  an  anthem,  the  part  so  marked  is  sung  by  a  quar- 
tet of  voices,  or  by  a  small  division  of  the  choir. 
Vezzoso  (It.).     Tender,  graceful. 
ViBRAziONE  (It.).    Vibration,  tremulous  tone. 
ViER-STiMMia  (Ger.).     Four  voices,  or  four  parts. 
ViGOROSo  (It.).     Vigorous,  bold. 
Viola  (It.).     The  tenor  violin. 

Violin.     The  instrument  upon  which  the  leading  or  upper 
part  of  string  music  is  played ;  one  of  the  most  popular 
solo  instruments  in  the  concert-hall  or  the  home. 
Violoncello.    The  bass  violin  in  a  string  quartet.    The  'cello, 
as  it  is  familiarly  called,  has  a  beautiful  quality  of  tone, 
and  almost  rivals  the  violin  as  a  solo  instrument. 
Vivace  (It.).     Vivaciously,  quickly. 
Vivo  (It.).    Life,  animation. 
11 


162  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Vocalization.    Management  of  the  voice. 

Vocal  score.  A  copy  of  a  choral  work  containing  the  voice 
parts,  and  the  orchestral  accompaniment  arranged  for  the 
piano  or  organ. 

Voix  (Fr.).    The  voice. 

Voix  CELESTES  {Fi'.).  The  name  given  to  a  stop  in  the  organ 
or  harmonium,  having  two  rows  of  pipes  in  the  former  and 
two  rows  of  reeds  in  the  latter,  one  of  which  is  tuned  a 
shade  above  the  other  in  pitch.  By  this  means  a  waving, 
undulating  tone  of  agreeable  cliaracter  is  produced.  The 
stop  is  also  called  the  dox  angelica. 

VoLLE  ORGEL  (Oer.).     Full  organ. 

VoLTi  SUBITO  {It.).     Turn  over  quickly. 

Voluntary.     An  organ  solo. 

Vox  HUMANA.  A  delicate  reed  stop  in  the  organ  of  voice-like 
quality ;  a  trenndant  stop  acting  at  the  same  time  upon  the 
wind  considerably  heightens  the  effect. 

W 

Waits.  An  old  word  now  applied  to  players  or  singers  who, 
with  intentions  kind,  mercenary,  or  otherwise,  disturb  the 
slumbers  of  the  public  generally  at  Christmas-time. 

Wald-flote  {Ger.).  Forest-flute.  A  name  given  to  an  organ 
stop  of  clear,  full  tone. 

WrND-HARFE  (G'e?*.).     Wind  harp,     ^olian  harp. 


Yd.     An  Indian  flute. 


Zartlich  {Ger.).     Tenderly,  delicately. 
Zeloso  (/if.).     Zealous,  earnest. 
ZiEMLicn  (Ger.).     Moderately. 
ZiNGARO  {It.).     Gypsy.     Gypsy-like. 
ZusAMMEN-STiMMiG  {GcT.).     Harmony,  concord. 
Zwei-stimmig  (^Ger.).    Two  pieces  or  parts. 
Zymbel  ((re?'.).    Cymbal. 


THE  LONDON  ALBEBT  HALL  OKGAN.  163 


THE  LONDOX  ALBERT  HALL  ORGAN 

This  magnificent  instrument  was  built  by  Mr.  Willis,  of  London.     A  list  of  the 
stops  is  here  given : 

Great  Organ 

Feet. 

1.  Fluto  Coniquo  (partly  harmonic) 16 

2.  Contra  Gamba 16 

3.  Violone 16 

4.  Bourdon 16 

5.  Open  Diapason 8 

6.  Open  Diapason 8 

7.  Viol-di-Gamba 8 

8.  Claribcl 8 

9.  Fluto  Harmoniquc 8 

10.  Flute  Ji  Pavilion 8 

11.  Quint 5i 

12.  Flute  Octaviento  Harmonitjuo       4 

13.  Viola 4 

14.  Octave 4 

15.  Quint  Oclavicnto 2| 

16.  Piccolo  Hlnnonique 2 

17.  Super  Octavo 2 

18.  Furniture 5  Ranks 

19.  Mixture 5  Ranks 

20.  Contra  Posauue 16 

21.  Posauno 8 

22.  TrompcUe  Harmoniquo 16  and  8 

23.  Tromba 8 

24.  Clarion  Ilarmonique 8  and  4 

25.  Clarion 4 

Solo  Organ 

Feet. 

1.  Contra  Basso       16 

2.  Fluto  a  Pavilion 8 

3.  Viola  d'Amour 8 

4.  Fluto  Harmoniquc       8 

5.  Claribcl  Kluto 8 

f>.  Voix  Celeste 8 

7.  Flauto  Travorso 4 

8.  Concert  Flute 4 

9.  Piccolo  Harmoniquc 2 

10.  Cymbalo 

11.  Corno  di  Bassetto 10 


164  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Feet. 

12.  Clarionet 8 

13.  Bassoon 8 

14.  French  Horn 8 

15.  Ophiclcido 8 

16.  Trombone 8 

17.  Oboe 8 

18.  Bombardon 16 

19.  Tuba  Mirabilis 8 

20.  Tuba  Clarion i 

Swell  Organ  p-gg^ 

1.  Double  Diapason 16 

%  Bourdon 16 

3.  Salicional        8 

4.  Open  Diapason 8 

5.  Viol-di-Gamba 8 

•  6.  Flute  si  Chemin(3o 8 

7.  Claribel  Fluto 8 

8.  Quint 6i 

9.  Flute  Ilarmoniquo 4 

10.  Viola 4 

11.  Principal    . 4 

12.  Quint  Octaviento 2| 

13.  Super  Octave 2 

14.  Piccolo  Harmoniquo 2 

15.  Sesquialtera 5  Ranks 

16.  Mixture >  5  Ranks 

17.  Contra  Posaune 16 

18.  Contra  Oboe 16 

19.  Baryton 16 

20.  Vox  Humana 8 

21.  Oboe 8 

22.  Cornopean 8 

23.  Tuba  Major 8 

24.  Tuba 4 

25.  Clarion 4 

CnoiR  Organ  pgej 

1.  Violone 16 

2.  Viol-di-Gamba 8 

3.  Dulciana 8 

4.  Lieblich  Gcdact 8 

5.  Open  Diapason 8 

6.  Vox  Angelica 8 

7.  Principal  Harmonique 4 

8.  Gemshorn 4 

9.  Lieblich  Flute 4 

10.  Celestiana 4 

11.  Flageolet 2 

12.  Piccolo  Harmonique 2 

13.  Super  Octave 2 


THE  LONDON  ALBERT  HALL  ORGAN.         165 

Feet. 

14.  Mixture 3  Ranks 

15.  Corno  di  Bassetto 16 

16.  Clarionet 8 

17.  Cor  Anglais 8 

18.  Oboe 8 

19.  Trompette  Harmonique 16  and  8 

20.  Clarion i 

Pedal  Organ 

Feet. 

1.  Double  Open  Diapason  (wood) 32 

2.  Double  Open  Diapason  (metal) 32 

3.  Contra  Violone  (metal) 32 

4.  Open  Diapason  (wood) 16 

5.  Open  Diapason  (metal) 16 

6.  Bourdon  (wood) ' 16 

7.  Violone  (metal) 16 

8.  Great  Quint  (meUil) 10} 

9.  Violoncello  (metal) 8 

10.  Octave  (wood) 8 

11.  Quint  (metal) 5^ 

12.  Super  Octave  (metal) 4 

13.  Furniture 5  Ranks 

14.  Mixture 3  Ranks 

15.  Contra  Posaune  (wood) 32 

16.  Contra  Fagotto  (wood) 16 

17.  Borabarde  (metal) 16 

18.  Ophideidc  (wood) 16 

19.  Trombone  (metal) 16 

20.  Fagotto  (wood) 8 

21.  Clarion  (metal) 8 

Coi'PLKRS,  Etc. 

1.  Solo  Sub-Octavo  on  Self.  8.  Swell  to  Choir. 

2.  Solo  Super-Octave  on  Self.  9.  Solo  to  Choir. 

3.  Swell  Sub  Octave  on  Self.  10.  Solo  to  Pedals.  , 

4.  Swell  Super-Octave  on  Self.  11.  Swell  to  Pedals. 

5.  Solo  to  Great.  12.  Great  to  Pedals. 

6.  Swell  to  Great.  13.  Choir  to  pedals. 

7.  Choir  to  Cireat.  14.  Sforzando. 

AccEssoRT  Movements,  F.tc. 

A  doublo-ai'ting  verticil  movement,  struck  by  the  heel  of  cither  foot,  detaches 
or  conuLHts  the  action  of  the  Pedal  Organ  from  or  with  all  but  the  Bourdon.  Violone, 
Open  Diapason  Metal,  and  Octave,  and  at  the  s;iiue  time  draws  or  puts  in  the 
Coupler  Gre:it  to  Pedal. 

There  are  eight  patent  pneumatic  Combination  pistons  to  each  of  the  manual 
organs,  governing  the  whole  of  the  slops.  These  are  arranged  below  and  in 
front  of  each  manual. 

Six  combination  pedals  govern  the  stops  of  the  Pedal  Organ. 


166  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Tremulant  by  pedal  to  suitable  stops  of  Pedal  Organ. 

Tremulant  by  pedal  to  suitable  stops  of  Choir  Organ. 

Sforzando  Pedal. 

A  pedal  drawing  Coupler  "Great  to  Pedal." 

A  pedal  reversing  the  above. 

A  patent  atmospheric  contrivance  is  applied  for  acting  on  the  Swell  louvres, 
by  which  means  the  shutters  can  be  instantly  opened  or  closed,  independently  or 
the  Swell  Pedal. 


THE   CHICAGO  AUDITORIUM   ORGAN 

This  organ  was  built  by  Mr.  Frank  Roosevelt,  of  New  York.  A  list  of  the  stops 
is  here  given.    The  Roosevelt  Electric  Action  is  used. 

Great  Organ 

Feet.  Pipes. 

1.  Double  Open  Diapason 16  CI 

2.  Contra  Gamba 16  61 

3.  First  Open  Diapason 8  61 

4.  Second  Open  Diapason 8  61 

5.  Gemshorn 8  61 

*6.  Viol-di-Gamba 8  61 

*7.  Viola  d'Amour 8  61 

8.  Principal  Floete 8  61 

*9.  Doppel  Floete 8  61 

*10.  Quint 5i  61 

11.  Octave 4  61 

*12.  Gambette 4  61 

*13.  Flute  Harmonique 4  61 

*14.  Octave  Quint 2§  61 

*15.  Super  Octave 2  61 

*16.  Mixture 4  and  5  Ranks  293 

*17.  Scharir 3  and  4  Ranks  220 

*18.  Ophecleide IG  61 

*K.  Trumpet 8  61 

*20.  Clarion 4  61 

*  Stops  C,  7,  9,  10,  and  12  to  20  enclosed  in  a  separate  Swell-box. 

Swell  Organ 

Feet.  Pi  pea 

21.  Double  Dulciana  (lowest  8  pipes  stopped) ....  16  61 

22.  Bourdon  (treble  and  bass,  split  knob) 16  61 

23.  Open  Diapason 8  61 

24.  Violin  Diapason 8  61 

25.  Spitz  Flffite 8  61 

26.  Salicional 8  61 

27.  /Eolino 8  61 

28.  Vox  Celestis 8  49 

29.  Flute  Harmonique 8  61 


THE  CHICAGO  AUDITOKIUM  ORGAN.  167 

Feet.  Pipes. 

30.  Clarabella 8  61 

31.  Stopped  Diapason 8  61 

32.  Octave i  61 

33.  Salicet 4  61 

34.  Hohl  Floete 4  61 

35.  Flauto  Dolce 4  61 

36.  Flageolet 2  61 

37.  Cornet 4  and  5  Ranks  281 

38.  Acuta 3  Ranks  183 

39.  Contra  Fagotto 16  61 

4^  Cornopeau 8  61 

4"  Oboe 8  61 

42.  Vox  Humana 8  61 

43.  Clarion 4  61 

Choir  Organ 

(Enclosed  in  a  separate  Swell-box.)  p,    ,  pines 

44.  Double  Melodia  (lowest  10  pipes  stopped) ....  16  61 

45.  Open  Diapason 8  61 

46.  Giogen  Principal 8  61 

47.  Dulciana 8  61 

48.  Flauto  Travorso 8  61 

49.  Lieblich  Gedeckt 8  61 

50.  Quintadena 8  61 

61.  Octave 4  61 

62.  Fugara 4  61 

63.  Flute  d' Amour 4  61 

64.  Xazard 2}  61 

55.  Piccolo 2  61 

60.  Dolce  Cornet 5  Ranks  305 

57.  Eupbono 10  61 

58.  Tromba 8  61 

69.  Clarinet 8  61 

60.  Carillons  [from  tenor  F  up)  (44  Steel  Bars). 

Solo  Organ 
(Eigbt-inch  pressure,  and  enclosed  in  a  separate  Swell-box.) 

Feet.  Pipea 

61.  Stentorpbono 8  61 

62.  Violoncello 8  61 

63.  Concert  Flute 8  61 

64.  Viola 4  61 

65.  Flute  Octaviante 4  61 

60.  Hohl  Pfcifo 4  61 

67.  Piccolo  Harmoniquo 2  61 

68.  Tuba  Major 10  61 

09.  Basset  Horn  (bass  clarinet) 16  61 

70.  Tuba  Mirabilis 8  61 

71.  Orchestral  Oboe 8  61 

72.  Orchestral  Clarinet 8  61 


168  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Feet.  Pipea 

73.  Cpr  Anglais 8  61 

74.  Tuba  Clarion i  61 

75.  Cathedral  Chimes  (25  bell  tubes). 

Ecuo  Organ 

(Situated  at  a  distance,  enclosed  in  a  separate  Swell-box,  and  played 
from  Solo  key-board.) 

Feet.  Pipes. 

76.  Quintatoen 16  61 

77.  Keraulophono 8  61 

78.  Dolcissimo 8  ^1 

79.  Unda  Maris 8  49 

80.  Fern  FlaHe 8  61 

81.  Dulcet 4  61 

82.  Flauto  Traverse 4  61 

83.  Armenia  .^Etheria 4  Ranks  244 

84.  Horn 8  61 

85.  Oboe 8  61 

86.  Vox  Humana 8  61 

Stage  Organ 

(Located  on  stage,  to  accompany  chorus,  and  played  from  Solo 
key-board.) 

Feet.  Pipes. 

87.  Open  Diapason.    . 8  61 

88.  Doppel  Floeto -    .  8  61 

89.  Octave 4  61 

90.  Trumpet 8  61 

Pkdal  Org.\n 

Feet  Pipes. 

91.  Double  Open  Diapason 32  30 

92.  Bourdon 32  30 

93.  First  Open  Diapason  (wood) '  16  30 

94.  Second  Open  Diapason  (zinc)  15  inches  diameter  .  16  30 

95.  Dulciana 16  30 

96.  Violone 16  30 

97.  Stopped  Diapason 16  30 

98.  Quint 10|  30 

99.  Octave 8  30 

100.  Violoncello 8  30 

101.  Flute 8  30 

102.  Octave  Quint 5J  30 

103.  Super  Octave 4  30 

104.  Mixture 3  Ranks  90 

105.  Contra  Bombard 32  30 

106.  Trombone 16  30 

107.  Serpent  (free  reed) 16  30 

108.  Contra  Bassoon 16  30 

109.  Clarion 8  30 


THK  CHICAGO  AUDITORIUM  ORGAN.  169 

Couplers 

110.  Swell  to  Great.  115.  Solo  Octaves  on  itselt. 

111.  Choir  to  Great.  116.  Solo  to  Pedal. 

112.  Solo  to  Great.  117.  Swell  to  Pedal. 

113.  Swell  to  Choir.  118.  Great  to  Pedal. 
lU.  Swell  Octaves  on  itself.  119.  Choir  to  Pedal. 

Mfxhanical  Accessouiks 

120.  Swell  Tremulant.  127.  Crescendo  and  Diminuendo  Indi- 

121.  Choir  Tremulant.  cator. 

122.  Solo  Tremulant.  128.  High  Pressure  Wind  Indicator. 
12.3.  Echo  Tremulant.  129.  Medium  Pressure  Wind  Indicator. 
121.  Echo  Organ  V'entil.        130.  Low  Pressure  Wind  Indicator. 

125.  Stage  Organ  Ventil.         131.  Belt  Shifters. 

126.  Combination  Release.     132.  Engineer's  Signal. 

Roosevelt  Automatic  Adjustable  Combination  Action 
133-139.  Seven  Pistons  over  Great  Keys  affecting  Great  and  Pedal 

Stops  and  Nos.  110,  111,  112,  116,  117,  118,  and  119. 
140-147.  Eight  Pistons  over  Swell  Keys  affecting  Swell  and  Pedal 

Stops  and  Nos.  114,  116,  117,  118,  119,  and  120. 
148-152.  Five  Pistons  over  Clioir  Keys  affecting  Choir  and  Pedal 

Stops  and  Nos.  113,  IIG,  117,  118,  119,  and  121. 
153-157.  Five  Pistons  over  Solo  Keys  affecting  Solo  and  Pedal  Stops 

and  Nos.  115,  116,  117,  118,  119,  and  122. 
158-162.  Five  Pedals  alfecting  Pedal  Stops  and  Pedal  Couplers. 

Pedal  IIovements 

163.  Full  Organ  Pedal  (to  draw  all  speaking  stops  without  throwing 

out  the  knobs). 

164.  Pedal  Ventil  (to  silence  any  adjustable  selection  of  Pedal  Stops 

without  throwing  in  the  knobs). 

165.  Solo  "  Off"  Echo  "  On  "  Ventil. 

166.  Solo  to  Great  Reversible  Coupler. 

167.  Swell  Octaves  Reversible  Coupler. 

168.  Solo  Octaves  Reversible  Coupler. 

169.  Solo  to  Pedal  Reversible  Coupler. 

170.  Great  to  Pedal  Reversible  Coupler. 

171.  Balanced  Swell  Pedal. 

172.  Balanced  Groat  and  Choir  Pedal. 

173.  Balanced  Solo  and  Echo  Pedal. 

174.  To  close  all  bo.xes. 

175.  To  open  all  boxes. 

176.  Crescendo  Pedal       )  Affecting  all  Speaking  Stops  in  the  instru- 

177.  Diminuendo  Pedal  )      mcnt. 

SUMMAKY 

Stops.  Pipea 

Great  Organ 20  1,611 

Swell  Organ 23  1,733 

Choir  Organ  (Carillons) 17  1,210 


170  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

Stops.  Pipes. 

Solo  Organ  (Chimes) 15  854 

Echo  Organ 11  842 

Stage  Organ 4  244 

Pedal  Organ 19  630 

Total  Speaking  Stops 109 

Couplers 10 

Mechanical  Accessories 13 

Adjustable  Combination  Pistons 25 

Pedal  Movements 20 

Total  ...         .    , 177 

Total  Pipes 7,124 

Total  Bells  69 


Total  Pipes  and  Bells 7,193 


THE  CINCINNATI  MUSIC  HALL  ORGAN 

This  organ  was  built  by  Messrs.  Hook  k  Hastings,  of  Boston.     A  list  ol  the 
stops  is  here  given. 

The  Great  Organ  has  22  Complete  Registers,  228  Pipes. 

Feet.  Pipes. 

1.  Open  Diapason 16  61 

2.  Quintatou 16  61 

3.  Bell  Open  Diapason 8  61 

4.  Open  Diapason 8  61 

5.  Viol-di-Gamba 8  61 

6.  Dopple  note 8  61 

7.  Clarabella 8  61 

8.  Gcmshorn 8  61 

9.  Viol  d'Araour 8  61 

10.  Quint f|  61 

11.  Octave 4  '61 

12.  Flute  Harmonique 4  61 

13.  Gambelte 4  61 

14.  Twelfth 25  61 

15.  Fifteenth 2  61 

16.  Cornet 5  Ranks  269 

17.  Mixture 4  Ranks  244 

18.  Acuta 4  Ranks  244 

19.  Cymbale 7  Ranks  394 

20.  Bombard 16  61 

21.  Trumpet 8  61 

22.  Clarion 4  61 


THE  CINCINNATI  MUSIC  HALL  ORGAN.  Ill 

The  Swell  Orgax  has  19  Complete  Registers,  1708  Pipes. 

Feet  Pipes. 

1.  Bourdon 16  61 

2.  Open  Diapason 8  61 

3.  Salicional 8  61 

4  Spitz  FWte 8  61 

5.  Stopped  Diapason 8  61 

(').  Quintadema 8  61 

7.  jEoline 8  61 

8.  Octave 4  61 

9.  Flauto  Jraverso 4  61 

10.  Violina i  61 

11.  Nazard 2}  61 

12.  Flautino 2  61 

13.  Mixture 5  Ranks  305 

14.  Dolce  Cornet 6  Ranks  366 

15.  Contra  Fagotto IG  61 

16.  Cornopean 8  61 

17.  Oboe 8  61 

18.  Vox  Humana 8  61 

19.  Clarion 4  61 

The  Choir  Orgax  has  17  Complete  Registers,  1281  Pipes. 

Feet.  Pipes. 

1.  Lieblich  Gcdact 16  61 

2.  English  Open  Diapason 8  61 

3.  Geigen  Principal 8  61 

4.  Viola 8  61 

5.  Rohr  FlOle 8  61 

6.  Mclodia 8  61 

7.  Dulciana 8  61 

8.  Octave 4  61 

9.  Fugara 4  61 

10.  Violin 4  61 

11.  Flute  Octaviante 4  61 

12.  Quintnote 25  61 

13.  Piccolo 2  61 

14.  Cornet 5  Ranks  305 

15.  Cor  Anglais 16  61 

16.  Clarinet 8  61 

17.  Vox  Angelica 8  61 

The  Solo  Organ  has  7  Registers,  3G6  Pipes,  and  32  Bells. 

Feet.  Pipes. 

1.  Stentorphon 8  61 

2.  Koraulophon 8  61 

3.  Philomela 8  61 

4.  Hohlpfeiiro 4  61 

5.  Piccolo  Harmonique 2  61 

6.  Tuba  Mirabilis 8  61 

7.  Carillons,  4-foot  tone,  32  notes. 


1*72  GUIDE  TO  MUSIC. 

The  Pedal  Organ  has  16  Complete  Registers,  COO  Pipes. 

Feet.  Pipes. 

1.  Open  Diapason 32  30 

2.  Open  Diapason 16  30 

3.  Violone 16  30 

4.  Dulciana 16  30 

5.  Bourdon 16  30 

6.  Quint lOi  30 

7.  Boll  Gamba 8  30 

8.  Octave 8  30 

9.  Violoncello 8  30 

10.  FlOte 8  30 

11.  Super  Octave 4  30 

12.  Cornet 5  Ranks  150 

13.  Contra  Bombard 32  30 

14.  Trombone 16  30 

15.  Posanne 8  30 

16.  Clarion 4  30 

There  are  15  Mechasical  Registers. 

1.  Great  Organ  Separation.  9.  Swell  to  Pedale  Coupler. 

2.  Swell  to  Great  Coupler.  10.  Choir  to  Pedale  Coupler. 

3.  Solo  to  Great  Coupler.  11.  Solo  to  Pedale  Coupler. 

4.  Choir  to  Great  Coupler,  unison.  12.  Octave  Coupler  Solo. 

6.  Choir  to   Great    Coupler,   sub-  13.  Swell  Tremolo.     Also  op- 
octave,  erated  by  pedal. 

6.  Pedale  Combination,  separation.  14.  Choir  Tremolo.     Also  op- 

7.  Swell  to  Choir  Coupler.  erated  by  pedal. 

8.  Great  to  Pedale  Coupler.  15.  Bellows  Signal. 

There  are  14  Pedal  Movesiests. 

1.  Grand  Crescendo  Pedal.  8.  Piano  Combination  Swell. 

2.  Full  Organ  Pedal.  9.   Forte  Combination  Choir. 

3.  Forte  Combination  Great  10.  Piano  Combination  Choir. 

4.  Mezzo  Combination  Great.  11.  Reversible  Pedal. 
6.  Piano  Combination  Great.  12.  Swell  Tremolo. 

6.  Forte  Combination  Swell.  13.   Choir  Tremolo. 

7.  Mezzo  Combination  Swell.  14.  Balance  Swell  Pedal. 


Sl'mmary 


Great  Organ 


Swell  Organ 
Choir  Organ 
Solo  Organ  . 
Pedale  .  . 
Mechanical  Registers  15 


22  Registers,  2,282  Pipes. 


19  "  1,708 

17  "  1,281  " 

7  "  366  "      32  Bells. 

16  "  600  " 


96  Registers,  6,237  Pipes,  32  Bells,  14  Pedal  Movementa 


INDEX. 


Accents,  special,  39. 
Accidentals,  28. 
Accompauiinent,  early,  74 
Acis  and  Galatea,  82.        , 
Agreomont  in  sounds,  21. 
Albert  Hall  organ,  157. 
Allegro,  example  of,  84. 
Alto,  20. 

"  Appassionata  "  Sonata,  95. 
Artnida,  Rossini's,  101. 
Arpeggio,  46. 
Attack,  60. 

Bach,  John  Sebastian,  87. 

Banjo,  15. 

Barbifere  di  Seveglia,  101. 

Bars,  33. 

Bartholdy,  Felix  Mendelssohn,  104. 

Bassoon,  5,  81. 

Beo,  sound  from  flight  of,  10. 

beat  of  wing  of,  10. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  94. 

Op.  79,  42. 

Op.  26,  43. 

Sonatas,  95,  96. 

Bellows  of  organ,  4. 
Bourdon,  stop  in  organ,  69. 
Bouree,  the,  84. 
Breaking  of  voice,  51. 
Breath,  how  to  obtain  full,  53. 

how  to  retain,  53. 

Breathy  tone,  56. 

Breve,  29. 

Butterfly,  flight  of,  10. 

Calvary,  Spohr's,  101. 
Canon,  the,  75. 
Cappella,  a,  35. 
Ccnerentola,  Rossini's,101. 
Chandos  Anthems,  82. 
Chord,  Vocal,  4. 


Chords,  spread,  46. 
Christus,  Mendelssohn's,  106. 
Clarabella,  stop  in  organ,  66. 
Clarinet,  5,  12. 
Clefs,  17,  18. 
Common  time,  33. 
Compass  of  voice,  57,  58,  59. 
Composers  of  music,  106. 
Comet,  12. 
Cornopean,  3, 
Couplers,  organ,  69. 
Courante,  the,  84. 
Creation,  the,  90. 
Crotchet,  30. 

Demisemiquaver,  30. 

Der  Fliegendc  Hollander,  110. 

Der  Freischiitz,  97. 

Don  Giovanni,  92. 

Double  diapason,  stop  in  organ,  69. 

flat,  the  23. 

sharp,  the,  23. 

Dulciana,  stop  in  organ,  68. 
Dulcimer,  8. 

Echo,  11. 
Elijah,  the,  105. 
Emma  di  Resburgo,  102. 
Erl-King,  the,  103. 
Ermiona,  101. 
Esther,  82. 
Euryantho,  Weber's,  98. 

Facst,  Schumann's,  109. 
Fiddle,  the,  8. 
Fifteenth  stop  in  organ,  65, 
Figure  signatures,  34. 
Flat,  the,  21. 

the  double,  23. 

Flat  keys,  27. 

Flautina,  stop  in  organ,  68. 


174 


INDEX. 


Flexibility  of  voice,  61. 

Flute,  the,  2. 

Fugue,  choral,  83. 

Full  breath,  how  to  take,  53. 

G  '  MBA,  stop  in  organ,  66. 

Cvotte,  the,  83. 

Gigue,  the,  84. 

G luck,  Christopher  Willibald,  87. 

GOtterdammcruug,  111. 

Great  to  pedal  stop  in  organ,  70. 

Gregory,  melody  attributed  to,  73. 

Growth  of  music,  72. 

Guillaumo  Tell,  101. 

Guitar,  the,  15. 

Haxdel,  81. 

Harmonic  flute,  stop  in  organ,  65. 

Harp,  8,  15. 

Harpsichord,  15,  81. 

Haydn,  Kranz  Joseph,  88. 

Horn,  the,  81. 

Huguenots,  Les,  102. 

Hymn  to  John  the  Baptist,  75. 

Il  Crociato  in  Egitto,  102. 
II  Seraglio,  92. 
Intervals,  20. 
Intonation,  57. 

of  voice,  60. 

Inverted  mordeutc,  50. 

turn,  49. 

Israel  in  Egypt,  81. 

Jessoxda,  Spohr's,  100. 

Joan  of  Arc,  102. 

Jupiter  Symphony,  the,  92. 

Keyboard  of  pianoforte,  16. 
Key  signatures,  26. 

La  Gazza  Ladra,  101. 
Last  Judgment,  Spohr".s,  100. 
Lieblich  Ucdact,  stop  in  organ,  68, 
Light  and  shade  in  music,  36,  38. 

a  test  of  purity,  56. 

Lobgesang,  105. 
Lohengrin,  110. 
Lord's  Prayer,  the,  102. 
Lorely,  Alendelssohu's,  106. 
Lungs,  management  of,  52. 
Lyre,  the,  7. 


Madrigal,  commencement  of  the,  76, 

77. 
Major  scales,  27. 
Management  of  lungs,  52. 
McEisure  in  music,  29. 
Meistersinger,  Die,  111. 
Mendelssohn,  104. 
tribute    to,    by    Prince    Consort, 

105. 

Works  of,  106. 

Mendelssohn's  Rivulet,  43. 
Messiah,  the,  82. 
Meyerbeer,  Giacomo,  102. 
Mezzo-Staccato,  41. 
Minim,  the,  20. 
Minor  scales,  27. 
Minuet,  the,  83. 
Mixture,  stop  in  organ,  65,  68. 
Moonlight  sonata,  95. 
Mordente,  49. 

inverted,  40. 

Mose  in  Egitto,  101. 
Mouth,  opening  the,  55. 
Mozart,  Wolfgang  Amadous,  91. 

Sonatas,  4G,  48. 

Music,  growth  of,  72. 

light  and  shade  in,  36. 

measure  in,  129. 

lovers,  words  to,  111,  112. 

ornamentation  in,  45. 

shade  in,  36. 

Musical    instruments,    nature's    forms 

in,  1. 

pitch,  10, 13. 

punctuation,  44. 

.sounds  in  natural  world,  9. 

terms,  117. 

Musicians,  list  of  important,  08. 

Names  of  notes,  18. 

Natural,  the,  22. 

Nature's  forms  in  musical  instruments, 

1. 
New  Year's  Song,  Schumann's,  109. 
Ninety-first  Psalm,  102. 
Notation,  musical,  15. 

system  of,  74. 

Notes,"  dotted,  31. 

how  to  attack,  60. 

names  of,  18. 

table  of,  31. 

Nozze  di  Figaro,  92. 


INDEX. 


175 


Obeeon,  Weber's,  98. 
Oboe,  the,  5,  81. 

stop  in  organ,  69. 

Octava,  41. 
Octave,  the,  20. 
Open  diapason,  64,  68. 
Opening  the  mouth,  55. 
Organ,  Albert  Hall,  157. 

■  bellows  of  the,  4. 

choir,  the,  71. 

description  of,  62. 

early,  80. 

great,  the,  63. 

jiow  to  blow,  62. 

importance  of   sustaining   notes, 

71. 

pipes  of  the,  12,  67,  69. 

reeds  of,  6. 

stops  of,  63. 

swell,  the,  63,  67. 

studies  for,  71. 

touch  in  playing,  72. 

Ornamentation  in  music,  45. 
Otello,  101. 
Overture,  the,  83. 

Paxdea.v  pipes,  2. 
Paradise  and  the  Peri,  109. 
Parsifal,  111. 
Pause,  the,  45. 
Perotin,  75. 
Phonograph,  the,  11. 
Phrasing,  41. 

examples  of,  42. 

Piano,  8. 

and  musical  notation,  15. 

sound-board  of,  7. 

Pianoforte,  keyboard  of,  16. 

origin  of,  16. 

Pipes  in  organ,  67,  68,  69,  70. 
Pitch,  musical,  10, 13. 
Portamento,  60. 
Position  in  singing,  C2. 

of  tongue,  56. 

Power  of  Sound,  Spohr's,  100. 
Prcciosa,  Weber's,  98. 
Presto,  example  of,  84. 
Principal,  organ  stop,  64,  68. 
Propliete,  Ic,  102. 
Punctuation,  musical,  44. 
Purcell,  79. 
Purity  of  tone,  5. 


Quaver,  30. 

Reeds  of  the  organ,  6. 
Rests,  32. 

dotted,  33. 

Retaining  the  breath,  53. 
Rienzi,  Wagner's,  110. 
Rinaldo,  82. 

Rivulet,  Mendelssohn's,  42. 
Robert  le  Diable,  102. 
Rossini,  Gioacchimo,  101. 

Saraband,  the,  84. 
Saul,  82. 
Scales,  27,  28. 
Schmidt,  Bemhard,  79. 
Schubert,  Franz,  102. 

Op.  147,  42. 

Schumann,  Robert,  108. 

Op.  21,  42. 

Madam,  109. 

Seasons,  the,  Haydn's,  90. 
Semibreve,  the,  29. 
Semi-dcmisemiquavcr,  the,  30. 
Semiquaver,  the,  30. 
Semiramidc,  101. 
Semitone,  21. 
Serenade,  Schubert's,  103. 
Shade  in  music,  .36. 
Shake  in  music,  48. 
Sharp,  the,  21. 

the  double,  23. 

keys,  27. 

Siegfried,  110. 
Signature,  time,  34,  35. 

figure,  34. 

Signatures,  key,  26. 

Signs  to  denote  tone  power,  38. 

Singing,  50. 

position  in,  52. 

Slurs,  32,  39. 

on  piano,  40. 

Songs  without  words,  106. 
Sound-board  of  piano,  7. 
Sound,  conveyance  of,  10. 

vibrations  in,  12. 

Sounds,  agreement  in,  21. 

musical,  9. 

Spohr,  Ludwig,  99. 
Spread  chords,  46. 
Stabat  Mater,  102. 
Staccato,  41. 


176 


INDEX. 


Stave,  the,  17. 

forms  of,  19. 

St.  Paul,  106. 

Stringed   instruments,   earliest   forms 

of,  7. 
Swell  to  pedal,  70. 
Symphony,  the,  90. 

Jupiter,  92. 

Syncopation,  46. 

Table  of  notes,  31. 

Tallis,  78. 

Tancredi,  Rossini's,  101. 

Tannhauser,  110. 

Tenor,  20. 

Tension  of  vocal  chords,  57. 

Tcnuto,  45. 

Test  of  purity,  56. 

Tie,  31. 

Time  accents,  38. 

common,  33. 

signature,  33. 

■  value,  30. 

Tone  color,  14. 

breathy,  56. 

nasal,  56. 

purity  of,  56. 

roundness  of,  54. 

power,  88. 

Tongue,  position  of,  56. 
Triplets,  45. 
Tristan  und  Isolde,  111. 
Trombone,  3,  81. 


Trumpet,  3,  81. 

organ  stop,  66. 

Turn,  47. 

examples  of,  47. 

inverted,  49. 

Twelfth  stop  in  organ,  65. 

Mass,  93. 

Two  Grenadiers,  the,  109. 

Vibrations  in  musical  sound,  12,  14, 

67. 
Viola,  14,  80. 
Violin,  14,  80. 

belly  of  the,  9. 

neck  of  the,  9. 

outline  of  the,  8. 

Vocal  chords,  4. 

tension  of,  56. 

Voice,  breaking  of,  51. 

compass  of,  57,  58,  59. 

nexibility  of,  61. 

intonation  of,  60. 

production,  54. 

Wagser,  Wilhelm  Richard,  110. 
Walkiire,  the,  111. 
Weber,  Carl  Maria  von,  97. 
Words  to  music  lovers.  111,  112. 

ZauberflOte,  Die,  92. 
Zelmira,  101. 

Zcmir  und  Azor,  Spohr's,  99. 
Zither,  15, 


THE  END. 


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the  light  of  their  practical  application  in  manners. — 
N.  V.  Times. 

Decidedly  the  best  book  of  its  kind  up  to  the  present 
time.  —  Chicago  Post. 

A  useful  little  book.  ...  A  work  that  goes  to  the 
very  heart  of  its  subject  in  a  philosophic  spirit  and  with 
convincing  effect.  It  is  written  in  a  graceful  and  sim- 
ple style. — Saturday  Evening  Gazette,  Boston. 

Tublishedby  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  New  York. 

(t^T"  The  above  ivork  is  for  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  tvill  be  sent  by  the 
publishers y  posttii:^e  prepaid,  to  any  part  of  tht  United  States^  Canada^  or 
Mexico,  on  receipt  0/ the  price. 


MUSICAL    BOOKS. 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  SINGING.  By  Clara 
Kathleen  Rogers.  Post  8vo,  Cloth,  Ornamental, 
$1  50. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  EXPRESSION  IN  PI- 
ANOFORTE PLAYING.  By  Adolph  F.  Chris- 
TiANi.     Square  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

MUSIC  AND  MORALS.  By  the  Rev.  H.  R.  Haweis, 
M.A.  With  Illustrations  and  Diagrams.  i2mo, 
Cloth,  $1  75  ;  Half  Calf,  $3  50. 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE  SONG  COLLECTION. 
Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8.  Each  number  con- 
tains both  words  and  music  of  Two  Hundred  Favorite 
Songs  and  Hymns.  Selected  by  J.  P.  McCaskey. 
Royal  Svo,  Paper,  50  cents;  Boards,  60  cents;  Cloth, 
$1  CK)  each.  Also  Nos.  I,  2,  3,  and  4  in  one  volume, 
Cloth,  $3  00. 

CHRISTMAS  IN  SONG,  SKETCH,  AND  STORY. 
Nearly  Three  Hundred  Christmas  Songs,  Hymns, 
and  Carols.  With  Selections  from  Beecher,  Wal- 
lace, AuERBACH,  Abbott,  Warren,  and  Dickens. 
Illustrations  by  Raphael,  Murillo,Bouguereau, 
HoFMANN,  Defregger,  Story,  and  others.  Se- 
lected by  J.  P.  McCaskey.    Royal  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

THE  STORY  OF  MUSIC  AND  MUSICIANS 
for  Young  Readers.  By  Lucy  C.  Lillie.  Illus- 
trated.    Square  i6mo,  Cloth,  Ornamental,  f  i  00. 

MUSICAL  HISTORY.  With  a  Roll  of  the  Names 
of  Musicians,  and  the  Times  and  Places  of  their 
Births  and  Deaths.  By  G.  A.  Macfarren.  i2mo, 
Paper,  25  cents.  

Published  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  New  York. 

f^^  The  above  works  are  for  sale  by  all  booksellers^  or  mill  be  sent  by  the 
ful'lishers,  postage  prepaid,  to  any  part  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  or 
Mexico,  OH  receipt  of  the  price. 


EVERYBODY'S    POCKET    CYCLOPEDIA 

Of  Things  Worth  Knowing,  Things  Difficult  to 
Remember,  and  Tables  of  Reference.  By  Eli 
Bates  Sheldon.  Square  i6mo,  Cloth,  Or- 
namental, 75  cents. 

This  volume  contains  a  wonderful  variety  of  infor- 
mation on  subjects  of  everyday  inquiry  :  facts  of  his- 
torical, scientific,  and  household  interest  ;  useful 
memoranda  concerning  commercial,  architectural,  and 
medical  topics  ;  what  everybody  ought  to  know  about 
love,  marriage,  and  etiquette ;  tables  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures ;  and  many  other  things  necessary  to  have  at  one's 
command,  yet  difficult  to  remember — all  classified  and 
arranged  for  handy  reference. 


It  is  remarkable  how  many  "  things  worth  knowing 
and  things  difficult  to  remember "  are  here  crowded 
into  small  space.  He  is  an  exceptionally  curious  per- 
son who  cannot  here  gratify  his  curiosity. — AF.  V.  Sun. 

This  little  vade  mecimi  of  213  pages  is  packed  full  of 
useful  information.  It  tells  us  about  the  most  distin- 
guished people  in  the  world  ;  names  of  the  principal 
rulers  ;  gives  all  sorts  of  statistics  ;  tables  of  distances 
and  fares  ;  a  compendium  of  history  ;  rules  of  eti- 
quette ;  weights  and  measures  ;  facts  in  physiology  and 
medicine  ;  poisons  and  their  antidotes  ;  and,  indeed,  a 
little  of  everything.  It  is  a  miniature  Encyclopaedia 
Americana — a  book  to  have  always  at  hand,  on  the 
desk  or  in  the  pocket. — Interior,  Chicago. 


Published  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS.  New  York. 

tC^^  For  stile  by  all  booksellers,  or  will  be  sent  by  the  publisJt- 
ers,  postage  prepaid,  to  any  part  0/  the  United  States,  Canada, 
or  Mexico,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


EVERYBODY'S    WRITING-DESK   BOOK. 

By  Charles  Nisbet  and  Don  Lemon.  Re- 
vised and  Edited  by  James  Baldwin,  Ph.D. 
Square  i6mo,  Cloth,  Ornamental,  $i  oo. 

A  handy  reference  book  for  the  use  of  all  who  write. 
It  contains  practical  rules  in  composition  and  grammar, 
a  list  of  15,000  synonyms  and  antonyms,  words  often 
misspelled,  rules  for  punctuation  and  spelling,  sugges- 
tions to  beginners  on  literature,  forms  of  addresses,  di- 
rections for  the  correction  of  proofs,  and  much  other 
matter  designed  for  the  guidance  and  instruction  of 
writers. 


A  capital  book  for  the  student.  Its  rules  for  com- 
position, grammar,  and  punctuation  are  simple  and 
clear,  and  well  calculated  to  start  the  student  to  think- 
ing. .  .  .  It  is  an  excellent  book  for  the  pocket  or  the 
satchel . — Ch icago  In ter-  Ocea n . 

This  little  work  is  crowded  from  cover  to  cover  with 
useful  information  on  the  thousand  and  one  doubtful 
points  with  regard  to  the  spelling  and  significance  of 
words,  niceties  of  grammar,  etc.,  which  come  up  for 
decision  before  every  writer  of  the  English  language. 
It  is  a  most  valuable  book  of  reference. — Observer, 
N.  Y.  _  . 

Calls  for  special  welcome  and  commendation,  being 
full  of  conscientious  and  painstaking,  as  well  as  useful 
and  acceptable  information,  collected  in  a  handy  vol- 
ume.— Hartford  Cowan t. 


Published  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS.  New  York. 

5I^f="  For  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  will  be  sent  by  the  />ublish- 
ers,  postage  prepaid,  to  any  part  of  tlie  United  States,  Canada, 
or  Mexico,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


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